Editing Carjacking (section)

==Studies==
A study published in the ''[[British Journal of Criminology]]'' in 2003 found that "for all of the media attention it has received in the United States, Europe and elsewhere, carjacking remains an under-researched and poorly understood crime."<ref name="Jacobs2003">Bruce A. Jacobs, Volkan Topalli & Richard Wright, "Carjacking, Streetlife and Offender Motivation" in ''The British Journal of Criminology'', Vol. 43, Issue 4 (October 2003), pp. 673–688.</ref> The authors conducted [[semi-structured interview]]s with 28 active carjackers in [[St. Louis, Missouri]], and based on these interviews concluded that "the decision to commit a carjacking stems most directly from a situated interaction between particular sorts of perceived opportunities and particular sorts of perceived needs and desires, this decision is activated, mediated, and shaped by participation in urban street culture."<ref name="Jacobs2003"/>

A study published in the ''[[Journal of Contemporary Ethnography]]'' in 2013 noted that "carjacking requires offenders to neutralize victims who are inherently mobile and who can use their vehicles as both weapons and shields." The study noted that carjackers use fear to compel compliance from victims.<ref name="Jacobs2013">Bruce Jacobs, "The Manipulation of Fear in Carjacking" in ''Journal of Contemporary Ethnography'', Vol. 42, Issue 5 (February 2013), pp. 523-544.</ref>

A 2008 paper by the [[Australian Institute of Criminology]] conceptualized carjackings as falling into four types based on method and motive: organized and instrumental, organized and acquisitive, opportunistic and instrumental, and opportunistic and acquisitive. An example of an ''organized and instrumental'' carjacking is a planned carjacking with a weapon to use the vehicle for [[ram-raiding|ramming an ATM to steal cash]]. An example of an ''organized and acquisitive'' carjacking is a planned carjacking to sell the vehicle in a known market. An example of an ''opportunistic and instrumental'' carjacking is a carjacking without a weapon to sell "vehicle/parts with no market in mind." An example of an ''opportunistic and acquisitive'' carjacking is a carjacking without a weapon to [[Joyride (crime)|joyride]].<ref name="YoungBorzycki">Lisa Jane Young and Maria Borzycki, [http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/341-360/tandi351.html Carjacking in Australia: recording issues and future directions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204064650/http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/341-360/tandi351.html |date=2017-12-04 }}, ''Trends & Issues in Crime & Criminal Justice'', No. 351, [[Australian Institute of Criminology]], February 2008.</ref>

A 2017 qualitative study published in ''[[Justice Quarterly]]'' examined auto theft and carjacking in the context of "sanction threats" that promoted fear and influenced "crime preferences" among criminals, thereby redirecting ("channeling") criminal activity. The study showed that "auto thieves are reluctant to embrace the violence of carjacking due to concerns over sanction threat severity they attributed to carjacking—both formal (higher sentences) and informal (victim resistance and retaliation). Meanwhile, the carjackers are reticent to enact auto theft because of the more uncertain and putatively greater risk of being surprised by victims, a fear that appears to overcome the enhanced long-term formal penalty of taking a vehicle by force."<ref>Bruce A. Jacobs & Michael Cherbonneau, "Perceived Sanction Threats and Projective Risk Sensitivity: Auto Theft, Carjacking, and the Channeling Effect," ''Justice Quarterly'' (March 2017), pp. 1-32.</ref>