Editing Cathode ray (section)

==History==
After the invention of the [[vacuum pump]] in 1654 by [[Otto von Guericke]], physicists began to experiment with passing high voltage electricity through [[rarefied air]]. In 1705, it was noted that [[electrostatic generator]] sparks travel a longer distance through low pressure air than through atmospheric pressure air.

===Gas discharge tubes===
[[File:Гейслерова трубка (2).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Geissler tube, in daylight and lit by its own light]]
[[File:Glow discharge regions.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Glow discharge]] in a low-pressure tube caused by electric current.]]

In 1838, [[Michael Faraday]] applied a high voltage between two metal [[electrode]]s at either end of a glass tube that had been partially evacuated of air, and noticed a strange light arc with its beginning at the cathode (negative electrode) and its end at the [[anode]] (positive electrode).<ref>Michael Faraday (1838) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ypNDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA125 "VIII. Experimental researches in electricity. — Thirteenth series.,"] ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', '''128''' :  125-168.</ref> In 1857, German physicist and glassblower [[Heinrich Geissler]] sucked even more air out with an improved pump, to a pressure of around 10<sup>−3</sup> [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]] and found that, instead of an arc, a glow filled the tube. The voltage applied between the two electrodes of the tubes, generated by an [[induction coil]], was anywhere between a few [[kilovolt]]s and 100 kV. These were called [[Geissler tube]]s, similar to today's [[neon sign]]s.

The explanation of these effects was that the high voltage accelerated free [[electron]]s and electrically charged [[atom]]s ([[ion]]s)  naturally present in the air of the tube.{{Citation needed|date=June 2012}} At low pressure, there was enough space between the gas atoms that the electrons could accelerate to high enough speeds that when they struck an atom they knocked electrons off of it, creating more positive ions and free electrons, which went on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction,{{Citation needed|date=June 2012}} known as a [[glow discharge]]. The positive ions were attracted to the cathode and when they struck it knocked more electrons out of it, which were attracted toward the anode. Thus the ionized air was electrically conductive and an electric current flowed through the tube.

Geissler tubes  had enough air in them that the electrons could only travel a tiny distance before colliding with an atom. The electrons in these tubes moved in a slow [[diffusion]] process, never gaining much speed, so these tubes didn't produce cathode rays. Instead, they produced a colorful glow discharge (as in a modern [[neon light]]), caused when the electrons struck gas atoms, exciting their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. The electrons released this energy as light. This process is called fluorescence.

===Cathode rays===
[[File:Ampola de Crookes.gif|thumb|A beam of cathode rays being bent by a magnetic field. Cathode rays are normally invisible; the path of this beam is revealed by having it strike a card with a fluorescent coating]] 
By the 1870s, British physicist [[William Crookes]] and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10<sup>−6</sup> atm. These were called [[Crookes tube]]s. Faraday had been the first to notice a dark space just in front of the cathode, where there was no luminescence. This came to be called the "cathode dark space", "Faraday dark space" or "Crookes dark space". Crookes found that as he pumped more air out of the tubes, the Faraday dark space spread down the tube from the cathode toward the anode, until the tube was totally dark. But at the anode (positive) end of the tube, the glass of the tube itself began to glow.

What was happening was that as more air was pumped from the tube, the electrons knocked out of the cathode when positive ions struck it could travel farther, on average, before they struck a gas atom. By the time the tube was dark, most of the electrons could travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode end of the tube without a collision. With no obstructions, these low mass particles were accelerated to high velocities by the voltage between the electrodes. These were the cathode rays.

When they reached the anode end of the tube, they were traveling so fast that, although they were attracted to it, they often flew past the anode and struck the back wall of the tube. When they struck atoms in the glass wall, they excited their orbital electrons to higher [[energy level]]s. When the electrons returned to their original energy level, they released the energy as light, causing the glass to [[fluoresce]], usually a greenish or bluish color. Later researchers painted the inside back wall with fluorescent chemicals such as [[zinc sulfide]], to make the glow more visible.

Cathode rays themselves are invisible, but this accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube in front of the cathode, such as the anode, cast sharp-edged shadows on the glowing back wall. In 1869, German physicist [[Johann Hittorf]] was first to realize that something must be traveling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadows. [[Eugen Goldstein]] named them ''cathode rays'' (German ''Kathodenstrahlen'').

===Discovery of the electron===
[[File:JJThomsonGasDischargeTubeElectronCavendishLab2013-08-29-17-11-41.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|J. J, Thomson's electric deflection tube, in which he showed that a beam of cathode rays was bent by an electric field like matter particles. The cathode is on R. The electron beam is accelerated passing through the cylindrical high voltage anode (''center''), bent by a voltage on the deflection plates (''center L''), and strikes the back wall of the tube causing a luminous glow.]]   
At this time, atoms were the smallest particles known, and were believed to be indivisible. What carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many historic experiments were done with Crookes tubes to determine what cathode rays were. There were two theories. Crookes and [[Arthur Schuster]] believed they were particles of "radiant matter," that is, electrically charged atoms. German scientists Eilhard Wiedemann, [[Heinrich Hertz]] and Goldstein believed they were "aether waves", some new form of [[electromagnetic radiation]], and were separate from what carried the electric current through the tube.

The debate was resolved in 1897 when [[J. J. Thomson]] measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, [[hydrogen]]. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first ''[[subatomic particle|subatomic]]'' particle to be discovered, which he originally called "''corpuscle''" but was later named ''electron'', after particles postulated by [[George Johnstone Stoney]] in 1874. He also showed they were identical with particles given off by [[Photoelectric effect|photoelectric]] and radioactive materials.<ref name="Thomson1">{{cite journal
  | last = Thomson
  | first = J. J.
  | title = On bodies smaller than atoms
  | journal = The Popular Science Monthly
  | pages = 323–335
  | publisher = Bonnier Corp.
  |date=August 1901| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3CMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA323
  | access-date = 2009-06-21}}</ref> It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge of the atom.

Thomson was given the 1906 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for this work. [[Philipp Lenard]] also contributed a great deal to cathode-ray theory, winning the Nobel Prize in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and their properties.

===Vacuum tubes===
The gas ionization (or [[cold cathode]]) method of producing cathode rays used in Crookes tubes was unreliable, because it depended on the pressure of the residual air in the tube. Over time, the air was absorbed by the walls of the tube, and it stopped working.

A more reliable and controllable method of producing cathode rays was investigated by Hittorf and Goldstein,{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} and rediscovered by [[Thomas Edison]] in 1880. A cathode made of a wire filament heated red hot by a separate current passing through it would release electrons into the tube by a process called [[thermionic emission]]. The first true electronic vacuum tubes, invented in 1904 by [[John Ambrose Fleming]], used this [[hot cathode]] technique, and they superseded Crookes tubes. These tubes didn't need gas in them to work, so they were evacuated to a lower pressure, around 10<sup>−9</sup> atm (10<sup>−4</sup> Pa). The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized [[gas discharge tube]]s such as [[krytron]]s.

In 1906, [[Lee De Forest]] found that a small voltage on a grid of metal wires between the cathode and anode could control a current in a beam of cathode rays passing through a vacuum tube. His invention, called the [[triode]], was the first device that could [[amplifier|amplify]] electric signals, and revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of ''[[electronics]]''. Vacuum tubes made [[radio broadcasting|radio]] and [[television broadcasting]] possible, as well as [[radar]], talking movies, audio recording, and long-distance telephone service, and were the foundation of consumer electronic devices until the 1960s, when the [[transistor]] brought the era of vacuum tubes to a close.

Cathode rays are now usually called electron beams. The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in these early tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, particularly in the invention of the cathode-ray tube (CRT) by [[Ferdinand Braun]] in 1897, which was used in [[television set]]s and [[oscilloscope]]s. Today, electron beams are employed in sophisticated devices such as electron microscopes, [[electron beam lithography]] and [[particle accelerator]]s.