Editing Chewa language (section)

== History ==
The Chewa were a branch of the [[Maravi]] people who lived in the Eastern Province of [[Zambia]] and in northern Mozambique as far south as the [[River Zambezi]] from the 16th century or earlier.<ref>Marwick (1963)</ref><ref>Newitt (1982).</ref>

The name "Chewa" (in the form ''Chévas'') was first recorded by [[António Gamitto]], who at the age of 26 in 1831 was appointed as second-in-command of an expedition from [[Tete, Mozambique|Tete]] to the court of King [[Kazembe]] in what became Zambia. His route took him through the country of King Undi west of the Dzalanyama mountains, across a corner of present-day Malawi and on into Zambia.<ref>Marwick (1964).</ref> Later he wrote an account including some ethnographic and linguistic notes and vocabularies. According to Gamitto, the Malawi or Maravi people (''Maraves'') were those ruled by King Undi south of the Chambwe stream (not far south of the present border between Mozambique and Zambia), while the Chewa lived north of the Chambwe.<ref>Marwick (1963), p.383.</ref>

Another, more extensive, list of 263 words and phrases of the language was made by the German missionary [[Sigismund Koelle]] who, working in [[Sierra Leone]] in West Africa, interviewed some 160 former slaves and recorded vocabularies in their languages. He published the results in a book called ''[[Polyglotta Africana]]'' in 1854. Among other slaves was one Mateke, who spoke what he calls "Maravi". Mateke's language is clearly an early form of Nyanja, but in a southern dialect. For example, the modern Chichewa phrase {{lang|ny|zaka ziwiri}} 'two years' was {{lang|ny|dzaka dziŵiri}} in Mateke's speech, whereas for Johannes Rebmann's informant Salimini, who came from the Lilongwe region, it was {{lang|ny|bzaka bziŵiri}}.<ref>Goodson (2011).</ref> The same dialect difference survives today in the word {{lang|ny|dzala}} or {{lang|ny|bzala}} '(to) plant'.<ref>Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 46.</ref>

Apart from the few words recorded by Gamitto and Koelle, the first extensive record of the Chewa language was made by [[Johannes Rebmann]] in his ''Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language'', published in 1877 but written in 1853–4. Rebmann was a missionary living near Mombasa in Kenya, and he obtained his information from a Malawian slave, known by the Swahili name Salimini, who had been captured in Malawi some ten years earlier.<ref>Rebman (1877), preface.</ref> Salimini, who came from a place called Mphande apparently in the Lilongwe region, also noted some differences between his own dialect, which he called {{lang|ny|Kikamtunda}}, the "language of the plateau", and the {{lang|ny|Kimaravi}} dialect spoken further south; for example, the Maravi gave the name {{lang|ny|[[Miombo|mombo]]}} to the tree which he himself called {{lang|ny|kamphoni}}.<ref>Rebmann (1877) s.v. M'ombo.</ref>

The first grammar, ''A Grammar of the Chinyanja language as spoken at Lake Nyasa with Chinyanja–English and English–Chinyanja vocabulary'', was written by Alexander Riddel in 1880. Further early grammars and vocabularies include ''A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa'' by George Henry (1891) and M.E. Woodward's ''A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English: as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa'' (1895). The whole Bible was translated into the [[Likoma Island]] dialect of Nyanja by [[William Percival Johnson]] and published as {{lang|ny|Chikalakala choyera: ndicho Malangano ya Kale ndi Malangano ya Chapano}} in 1912.<ref>''The UMCA in Malawi'', p 126, James Tengatenga, 2010: "Two important pieces of work have been accomplished during these later years. First, the completion by Archdeacon Johnson of the Bible in Chinyanja, and secondly, the completed Chinyanja prayer book in 1908."</ref> Another Bible translation, known as the {{lang|ny|Buku Lopatulika ndilo Mau a Mulungu}}, was made in a more standard Central Region dialect about 1900–1922 by missionaries of the Dutch Reformed Mission and Church of Scotland with the help of some Malawians. This has recently (2016) been reissued in a revised and slightly modernised version.<ref>[http://biblesociety-malawi.org/index.php/2016/02/24/buku-lopatulika-has-been-revised/ Bible Society of Malawi newsletter, 24 February 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215063607/http://biblesociety-malawi.org/index.php/2016/02/24/buku-lopatulika-has-been-revised/ |date=15 February 2020 }}.</ref>

Another early grammar, concentrating on the [[Kasungu]] dialect of the language, was [[Mark Hanna Watkins]]' ''A Grammar of Chichewa'' (1937). This book, the first grammar of any African language to be written by an American, was a work of cooperation between a young black PhD student and young student from Nyasaland studying in Chicago, [[Hastings Banda|Hastings Kamuzu Banda]], who in 1966 was to become the first President of the Republic of Malawi.<ref>Watkins (1937), p. 7.</ref><ref>Wade-Lewis (2005).</ref> This grammar is also remarkable in that it was the first to mark the tones of the words. Modern monographs on aspects of Chichewa grammar include [[Al Mtenje|Mtenje]] (1986), Kanerva (1990), Mchombo (2004) and [[Laura J. Downing|Downing]] & Mtenje (2017).

In recent years the language has changed considerably, and a dichotomy has grown between the traditional Chichewa of the villages and the language of city-dwellers.<ref>Batteen (2005).</ref>