Editing Cimbri (section)

==History==
===Origins===
Scholars generally see the Cimbri as originating in [[Jutland]], but archaeologists have found no clear indications of any mass migration from Jutland in the early [[Iron Age]]. The [[Gundestrup Cauldron]], which was deposited in a bog in [[Himmerland]] in the 2nd or 1st century BC, shows that there was some sort of contact with southeastern Europe, but it is uncertain if this contact can be associated with the Cimbrian militia expeditions against Rome of the 1st Century BC. It is known that the peoples of Northern Europe and the British Isles participated in annual partial population seasonal Winter migrations southward to what is now central Iberia and southern France where goods and resources were traded and cross-culture marriages were arranged.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kaul | first1 = F. | last2 = Martens | first2 = J. | year = 1995 | title = Southeast European Influences in the Early Iron Age of Southern Scandinavia. Gundestrup and the Cimbri | journal = [[Acta Archaeologica]] | volume = 66 | pages = 111–161 }}</ref>

Advocates for a northern homeland point to Greek and Roman sources that associate the Cimbri with the Jutland peninsula. According to the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res gestae]]'' (ch. 26) of [[Augustus]], the Cimbri were still found in the area around the turn of the 1st century AD:

{{Blockquote|My fleet sailed from the mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri, to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea, and the Cimbri and [[Charudes|Charydes]] and [[Semnones]] and other peoples of the Germans of that same region through their envoys sought my friendship and that of the Roman people.}}

The contemporary Greek geographer [[Strabo]] testified that the Cimbri still existed as a Germanic tribe, presumably in the "Cimbric peninsula" (since they are said to live by the [[North Sea]] and to have paid tribute to Augustus):

{{Blockquote|As for the Cimbri, some things that are told about them are incorrect and others are extremely improbable. For instance, one could not accept such a reason for their having become a wandering and piratical folk as this that while they were dwelling on a Peninsula they were driven out of their habitations by a [[Cymbrian flood|great flood-tide]]; for in fact they still hold the country which they held in earlier times; and they sent as a present to Augustus the most sacred kettle in their country, with a plea for his friendship and for an amnesty of their earlier offences, and when their petition was granted they set sail for home; and it is ridiculous to suppose that they departed from their homes because they were incensed on account of a phenomenon that is natural and eternal, occurring twice every day. And the assertion that an excessive flood-tide once occurred looks like a fabrication, for when the ocean is affected in this way it is subject to increases and diminutions, but these are regulated and periodical.|Strabo, ''[[Geographica]]'' 7.2.1, trans. H. L. Jones<ref>As a geologist, Strabo reveals himself as a [[Gradualism|gradualist]]; in 1998, however, the archaeologist B. J. Coles identified as "[[Doggerland]]" the now-drowned habitable and huntable lands in the coastal plain that had formed in the [[North Sea]] when sea level dropped, and that was re-flooded following the withdrawal of the ice sheets.</ref>}}

On the map of [[Claudius Ptolemaeus|Ptolemy]], the "Kimbroi" are placed on the northernmost part of the peninsula of Jutland,<ref>Ptolemy, ''Geography'' 2.11.7: {{lang|grc|πάντων δ᾽ ἀρκτικώτεροι Κίμβροι}} "the Cimbri are more northern than all (of these tribes)"</ref> i.e., in the modern landscape of Himmerland south of [[Limfjorden]] (since [[Vendsyssel-Thy]] north of the fjord was at that time a group of islands).

===Migration===
Some time before 100 BC many of the Cimbri, as well as the [[Teutons]] and [[Ambrones]], migrated south-east. After several unsuccessful battles with the [[Boii]] and other [[Celtic tribes]], they appeared {{circa}} 113 BC in [[Noricum]], where they invaded the lands of one of Rome's allies, the [[Taurisci]].

On the request of the Roman [[consul]] [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 113 BC)|Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]], sent to defend the Taurisci, they retreated, only to find themselves deceived and attacked at the [[Battle of Noreia]], where they defeated the Romans.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Cimbri|volume=6|page=368|first=Frederick George Meeson |last=Beck}}</ref> Only a storm, which separated the combatants, saved the Roman forces from complete annihilation.

===Invading Gaul===
Now the road to Italy was open, but they turned west towards [[Gaul]]. They came into frequent conflict with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], who usually came out the losers. In 109 BC, they defeated a Roman army under the consul [[Marcus Junius Silanus (consul 109 BC)|Marcus Junius Silanus]], who was the commander of [[Gallia Narbonensis]]. In 107 BC they defeated another Roman army under the consul [[Lucius Cassius Longinus (consul 107 BC)|Gaius Cassius Longinus]], who was killed at the [[Battle of Burdigala]] (modern day [[Bordeaux]]) against the [[Tigurini]], who were allies of the Cimbri.

===Attacking the Roman Republic===
It was not until 105 BC that they planned an attack on the Roman Republic itself. At the [[Rhône]], the Cimbri clashed with the Roman armies. Discord between the Roman commanders, the proconsul [[Quintus Servilius Caepio (consul 106 BC)|Quintus Servilius Caepio]] and the consul [[Gnaeus Mallius Maximus]], hindered Roman coordination and so the Cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate [[Marcus Aurelius Scaurus]] and later inflicted a devastating defeat on Caepio and Maximus at the [[Battle of Arausio]]. The Romans lost as many as 80,000 men, according to [[Livy]]; [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]] (in his ''[[History of Rome (Mommsen)|History of Rome]]'') thought that excluded auxiliary cavalry and non-combatants who brought the total loss closer to 112,000. Other estimates are much smaller, but by any account a large Roman army was routed.

Rome was in panic, and the ''terror cimbricus'' became proverbial. Everyone expected to soon see the ''new Gauls'' outside of the gates of Rome. Desperate measures were taken: contrary to the Roman constitution, [[Gaius Marius]], who had defeated [[Jugurtha]], was elected consul and supreme commander for five years in a row (104–100 BC).

===Defeat===
[[File:The defeat of the Cimbri.jpg|right|thumb|''The Defeat of the Cimbri'' by [[Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps|Alexandre-Gabriel Décamps]]]]
[[File:Marius and the Ambassadors of the Cimbri.jpg|thumb|Marius (seated) and the ambassadors of the Cimbri ([[William Rainey]], 1900)]]
In 104–103 BC, the Cimbri had turned to the Iberian Peninsula where they pillaged far and wide, until they were confronted by a coalition of [[Celtiberians]].<ref>Livy: Periochae 67</ref> Defeated, the Cimbri returned to Gaul, where they joined their allies, the [[Teutons]]. During this time, C. Marius had the time to prepare and, in 102 BC, he was ready to meet the Teutons and the Ambrones at the Rhône. These two tribes intended to pass into Italy through the western passes, while the Cimbri and the Tigurines were to take the northern route across the [[Rhine]] and later across the [[Central Eastern Alps]].

At the estuary of the [[Isère (river)|Isère]], the Teutons and the Ambrones met Marius, whose well-defended camp they did not manage to overrun. Instead, they pursued their route, and Marius followed them. At [[Battle of Aquae Sextiae|Aquae Sextiae]], the Romans won two battles and took the Teuton king [[Teutobod]] prisoner.

The Cimbri had penetrated through the Alps into northern Italy. The consul [[Quintus Lutatius Catulus]] had not dared to fortify the passes, but instead he had retreated behind the river [[Po (river)|Po]], and so the land was open to the invaders. The Cimbri did not hurry, and the victors of Aquae Sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements. At the [[Battle of Vercellae]], at the confluence of the river [[Sesia]] with the [[Po (river)|Po]], in 101 BC, the long voyage of the Cimbri also came to an end.

It was a devastating defeat. Two chieftains, [[Lugius]] and [[Boiorix]], died on the field, while the other chieftains [[Caesorix]] and [[Claodicus]] were captured.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sampson |first=Gareth S. |title=The crisis of Rome: the Jugurthine and Northern Wars and the rise of Marius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUQpAQAAMAAJ&q=%22The+kings+Lugius+and+Boiorix+fell+on+the+battlefield;+Claodicus+and+Caesorix+were+captured%22 |access-date=1 December 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |page=175 |isbn=978-1-84415-972-7 }}</ref> The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. The Cimbri were annihilated, although some may have survived to return to the homeland where a population with this name was residing in northern [[Jutland]] in the 1st century AD, according to the sources quoted above. Some of the surviving captives may have had sons that joined Spartacus's cause, and been among the rebelling [[gladiator]]s in the [[Third Servile War]].<ref name=strauss>{{cite book |last=Strauss |first=Barry |title=The Spartacus War |url=https://archive.org/details/spartacuswar00stra |url-access=registration |quote=marius german. |year=2009 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4165-3205-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/spartacuswar00stra/page/21 21]–22 }}</ref>

[[Justin (historian)|Justin]]'s epitome of [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Trogus]] has [[Mithridates VI]] send emissaries to the Cimbri to request military aid during the [[Social War (91–88 BC)|Social War]] (91-88 BCE).<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20030902212356/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans38.html Marcus Junianus Justinus, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'', 38.3]}}, 'In the next place, well understanding what a war he was provoking, he sent ambassadors to the Cimbri, the Gallograecians, the Sarmatians, and the Bastarnians, to request aid'</ref> Justin also states that the Cimbri were again in Italy at this time, i.e. over ten years later.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20030902212356/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans38.html Marcus Junianus Justinus, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'', 38.4]}}, 'all Italy, at the present time, was in arms in the Marsian war,... At the same time, too, the Cimbri from Germany, many thousands of wild and savage people, had rushed upon Italy like a tempest', The Latin text has not like this translation an imperfect and a pluperfect, but two perfect infinitives (consurrexisse... inundasse...)</ref>

===Supposed descendants===
According to [[Julius Caesar]], the Belgian tribe of the [[Atuatuci]] "was descended from the Cimbri and [[Teutons (Germanic tribe)|Teutoni]], who, upon their march into our province and Italy, set down such of their stock and stuff as they could not drive or carry with them on the near (i.e. west) side of the [[Rhine]], and left six thousand men of their company there as guard and garrison" (''Gall.'' 2.29, trans. Edwards). They founded the city of Atuatuca in the land of the [[Belgae|Belgic]] [[Eburones]], whom they dominated. Thus [[Ambiorix]] king of the Eburones paid tribute and gave his son and nephew as hostages to the Atuatuci (''Gall.'' 6.27). In the first century AD, the Eburones were replaced or absorbed by the Germanic [[Tungri]], and the city was known as Atuatuca Tungrorum, i.e. the modern city of [[Tongeren]].

The population of modern-day [[Himmerland]] claims to be the heirs of the ancient Cimbri. The adventures of the Cimbri are described by the Danish Nobel Prize–winning author [[Johannes Vilhelm Jensen|Johannes V. Jensen]], himself born in Himmerland, in the novel ''Cimbrernes Tog'' (1922), included in the epic cycle ''Den lange Rejse'' (English ''[[The Long Journey]]'', 1923). The so-called Cimbrian bull ("[[Cimbrian Bull|Cimbrertyren]]"), a sculpture by [[Anders Bundgaard]], was erected on 14 April 1937 in a central town square in [[Aalborg]], the capital of the [[Region Nordjylland|region of North Jutland]].

A German ethnic minority speaking the [[Cimbrian language]], having settled in the mountains between Vicenza, Verona, and Trento in Italy (also known as [[Sette Comuni|Seven Communities]]), is also called the [[:it:Cimbri (minoranza linguistica)|''Cimbri'']]. For hundreds of years this isolated population and its present 4,400 inhabitants have claimed to be the direct descendants of the Cimbri retreating to this area after the Roman victory over their tribe. However, it is more likely that Bavarians settled here in the Middle Ages. Most linguists remain committed to the hypothesis of a medieval (11th to 12th century AD) immigration to explain the presence of small German-speaking communities in the north of Italy.<ref>James R. Dow: ''Bruno Schweizer's commitment to the Langobardian thesis''. In: Thomas Stolz (Hrsg): ''Kolloquium über Alte Sprachen und Sprachstufen. Beiträge zum Bremer Kolloquium über "Alte Sprachen und Sprachstufen". (= Diversitas Linguarum, Volume 8)''. Verlag Brockmeyer, Bochum 2004, {{ISBN|3-8196-0664-5}}, S. 43–54.</ref> Some genetic studies seem to prove a Celtic, not Germanic, descent for most inhabitants in the region<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 11436126 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200643 | volume=9 | title=Haemochromatosis gene mutations in a clustered Italian population: evidence of high prevalence in people of Celtic ancestry | journal=Eur J Hum Genet | pages=445–51 | last1 = Pozzato | first1 = G | last2 = Zorat | first2 = F | last3 = Nascimben | first3 = F | last4 = Gregorutti | first4 = M | last5 = Comar | first5 = C | last6 = Baracetti | first6 = S | last7 = Vatta | first7 = S | last8 = Bevilacqua | first8 = E | last9 = Belgrano | first9 = A | last10 = Crovella | first10 = S | last11 = Amoroso | first11 = A| year=2001 | issue=6 | doi-access = free }}</ref> that is reinforced by Gaulish toponyms such as those ending with the suffix ''-ago'' < Celtic ''-*ako(n)'' (e.g. [[Asiago]] is clearly the same place name as the numerous variants – [[Azay-le-Rideau|Azay]], [[Aisy]], [[Aze (disambiguation)|Azé]], [[Ézy-sur-Eure|Ezy]] – in France, all of which derive from ''*Asiacum'' < Gaulish ''*Asiāko(n)''). On the other hand, the original place names in the region, from the specifically localized language known as 'Cimbro' are still in use alongside the more modern names today. These indicate a different origin (e.g., Asiago is known also by its original Cimbro name of ''Sleghe''). The Cimbrian origin myth was popularized by humanists in the 14th century.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

Despite these connections to southern Germany, belief in a Himmerland origin persisted well into modern times. On one occasion in 1709, for instance, [[Frederick IV of Denmark]] paid the region's inhabitants a visit and was greeted as their king. The population, which kept its independence during the time of the Venice Republic, was later severely devastated by [[World War I]]. As a result, many Cimbri have left this mountainous region of Italy, effectively forming a worldwide diaspora.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haselgrove and Wigg-Wolf |first1=Colin and David |title=Iron Age coinage and ritual practices |date=2005 |publisher=Von Zabern |page=162 |isbn=978-3-8053-3491-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEVmAAAAMAAJ&q=diaspora |access-date=29 April 2019}}</ref>