Editing Clause (section)

==Two major distinctions==
A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between '''independent clauses''' and '''dependent clauses'''.<ref>Most basic discussions of the clause emphasize the distinction between main and subordinate clauses. See for instance Crystal (1997:62).</ref> An independent clause can stand alone, i.e. it can constitute a complete sentence by itself. A dependent clause, by contrast, relies on an independent clause's presence to be efficiently utilizable.

A second significant distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses. A finite clause contains a structurally central [[finite verb]], whereas the structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a [[non-finite verb]]. Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the modern study of syntax. The discussion here also focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered further below.

Clauses can be classified according to a distinctive trait that is a prominent characteristic of their syntactic form. The position of the finite verb is one major trait used for classification, and the appearance of a specific type of focusing word (e.g. [['Wh'-word]]) is another. These two criteria overlap to an extent, which means that often no single aspect of syntactic form is always decisive in deciding how the clause functions. There are, however, strong tendencies.

===Standard SV-clauses===
Standard SV-clauses (subject-verb) are the norm in English. They are usually declarative (as opposed to exclamative, imperative, or interrogative); they express information neutrally, e.g.

::The pig has not yet been fed.{{Snd}} Declarative clause, standard SV order
::I've been hungry for two hours.{{Snd}} Declarative clause, standard SV order
::...that I've been hungry for two hours.{{Snd}} Declarative clause, standard SV order, but functioning as a subordinate clause due to the appearance of the [[Subordinator (grammar)|subordinator]] ''that''

Declarative clauses like these are by far the most frequently occurring type of clause in any language. They can be viewed as basic, with other clause types being derived from them. Standard SV-clauses can also be interrogative or exclamative, however, given the appropriate intonation [[Contour (linguistics)|contour]] and/or the appearance of a question word, e.g.

::a. The pig has not yet been fed?{{Snd}} Rising intonation on ''fed'' makes the clause a [[yes–no question|yes/no question]].

::b. The pig has not yet been fed!{{Snd}} Spoken forcefully, this clause is exclamative.

::c. You've been hungry for how long?{{Snd}} Appearance of interrogative word ''how'' and rising intonation make the clause a constituent question

Examples like these demonstrate that how a clause functions cannot be known based entirely on a single distinctive syntactic criterion. SV-clauses are usually declarative, but intonation and/or the appearance of a question word can render them interrogative or exclamative.

===Verb first clauses===
Verb first clauses in English usually play one of three roles: 1. They express a yes/no-question via [[subject–auxiliary inversion]], 2. they express a condition as an embedded clause, or 3. they express a command via imperative mood, e.g.

::a. He '''must''' stop laughing.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)
::b. '''Should''' he stop laughing?{{Snd}} Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order
::c. '''Had''' he stopped laughing,&nbsp;...{{Snd}} Condition expressed by verb first order
::d. '''Stop''' laughing!{{Snd}} Imperative formed with verb first order

::a. They '''have''' done the job.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)
::b. '''Have''' they done the job?{{Snd}} Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order
::c. '''Had''' they done the job,&nbsp;...{{Snd}} Condition expressed by verb first order
::d. '''Do''' the job!{{Snd}} Imperative formed with verb first order

Most verb first clauses are independent clauses. Verb first conditional clauses, however, must be classified as embedded clauses because they cannot stand alone.

===''Wh''-clauses===
In [[English language|English]], ''Wh''-clauses contain a ''wh''-word. ''Wh''-words often serve to help express a constituent question. They are also prevalent, though, as relative pronouns, in which case they serve to introduce a relative clause and are not part of a question. The ''wh''-word focuses a particular constituent, and most of the time, it appears in clause-initial position. The following examples illustrate standard interrogative ''wh''-clauses. The b-sentences are direct questions (independent clauses), and the c-sentences contain the corresponding indirect questions (embedded clauses):

::a. Sam likes the meat.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause
::b. '''Who''' likes the meat?{{Snd}} Matrix interrogative ''wh''-clause focusing on the subject
::c. They asked <u>'''who''' likes the meat</u>.{{Snd}} Embedded interrogative ''wh''-clause focusing on the subject

::a. Larry sent Susan to the store.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause
::b. '''Whom''' did Larry send to the store?{{Snd}} Matrix interrogative ''wh''-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion present
::c. We know <u>'''whom''' Larry sent to the store</u>.{{Snd}} Embedded ''wh''-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent

::a. Larry sent Susan to the store.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause
::b. '''Where''' did Larry send Susan?{{Snd}} Matrix interrogative ''wh''-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion present
::c. Someone is wondering <u>'''where''' Larry sent Susan</u>.{{Snd}} Embedded ''wh''-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent

One important aspect of matrix ''wh''-clauses is that [[subject-auxiliary inversion]] is obligatory when something other than the subject is focused. When it is the subject (or something embedded in the subject) that is focused, however, subject-auxiliary inversion does not occur.

::a. '''Who''' called you?{{Snd}} Subject focused,  no subject-auxiliary inversion
::b. '''Whom''' did you call?{{Snd}} Object focused, subject-auxiliary inversion occurs

Another important aspect of ''wh''-clauses concerns the absence of subject-auxiliary inversion in embedded clauses, as illustrated in the c-examples just produced. Subject-auxiliary inversion is obligatory in matrix clauses when something other than the subject is focused, but it never occurs in embedded clauses regardless of the constituent that is focused. A systematic distinction in word order emerges across matrix ''wh''-clauses, which can have VS order, and embedded ''wh''-clauses, which always maintain SV order, e.g.

::a. '''Why''' are they doing that?{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix ''wh''-clause.
::b. They told us <u>'''why''' they are doing that</u>.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded ''wh''-clause.
::c. *They told us <u>'''why''' are they doing that</u>.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded ''wh''-clause.

::a. '''Whom''' is he trying to avoid?{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix ''wh''-clause.
::b. We know <u>'''whom''' he is trying to avoid</u>.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded ''wh-''clause.
::c. *We know <u>'''whom''' is he trying to avoid</u>.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded ''wh''-clause.

===Relative clauses===
{{hatnote|Main article: [[Relative clause]]. See also [[English relative clauses]].}}
[[Relative clause]]s are a mixed group. In English they can be standard SV-clauses if they are introduced by ''that'' or lack a relative pronoun entirely, or they can be ''wh''-clauses if they are introduced by a [[wh-word|''wh''-word]] that serves as a [[relative pronoun]].