Editing Coal mining (section)

==Methods of extraction==
Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface (also called an open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam.  Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a [[coal preparation plant]]. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; [[overburden]] characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography, especially altitude and slope; climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.<ref>[http://www.greatmining.com/articles/methods-of-coal-mining/ "Methods of Coal Mining"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318121002/http://www.greatmining.com/articles/methods-of-coal-mining/ |date=18 March 2012 }} ''Great Mining'' (2003) accessed 19 December 2011</ref>

Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two basic methods of mining. The choice of mining method depends primarily on depth, density, overburden, and thickness of the coal seam; seams relatively close to the surface, at depths less than approximately {{convert|180|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}}, are usually surface mined.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Coal that occurs at depths of {{convert|180|to|300|ft|m|abbr=on|round=5|order=flip}} are usually deep mined, but in some cases surface mining techniques can be used. For example, some western U.S. coal that occur at depths in excess of {{convert|200|ft|m|abbr=on|round=5|order=flip}} are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam {{convert|60|–|90|ft|m|abbr=off|round=5|order=flip}}. Coals occurring below {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=on||round=5|order=flip}} are usually deep mined.<ref name="Christman, R.C. 1980">Christman, R.C., J. Haslbeck, B. Sedlik, W. Murray, and W. Wilson. 1980. ''Activities, effects and impacts of the coal fuel cycle for a 1,000-MWe electric power generating plant''. Washington, DC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.</ref> However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to {{convert|1000|–|1500|ft|m|abbr=off|-1|order=flip}} below ground level, for instance [[Tagebau Hambach]] in Germany.

===Surface mining===
[[File:Cerrejonmine1.png|thumb|Trucks loaded with coal at the [[Cerrejón]] coal mine in [[Colombia]]]]
When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using [[Open-pit mining|open-cut]], also referred to as open-cast, open-pit, mountaintop removal or strip, mining methods. Opencast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the [[stratum|strata]] may be exploited. This equipment can include the following: Draglines which operate by removing the overburden, power shovels, large trucks in which transport overburden and coal, bucket wheel excavators, and conveyors. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, of the mining area. The overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured and thoroughly mined in strips. The coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used.<ref name="CoalMining2009"/>

Most open cast mines in the United States extract [[bituminous coal]]. In Canada, Australia, and South Africa, [[open cast mining]] is used for both [[thermal coal|thermal]] and [[metallurgical coal]]s. In [[New South Wales]] open casting for steam coal and [[anthracite]] is practiced. Surface mining accounts for around 80 percent of production in Australia, while in the US it is used for about 67 percent of production. Globally, about 40 percent of coal production involves surface mining.<ref name="CoalMining2009"/>

====Strip mining====
Strip mining exposes coal by removing earth above each coal seam. This earth to be removed is referred to as 'overburden' and is removed in long strips.<ref name="T1">Ryan Driskell Tate, "Places of Overburden: Strip Mining and Reclamation on the Northern Great Plains," ''The Greater Plains: Rethinking a Region's Environmental Histories'' (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2021).</ref> The overburden from the first strip is deposited in an area outside the planned mining area and referred to as out-of-pit dumping. Overburden from subsequent strips is deposited in the void left from mining the coal and overburden from the previous strip. This is referred to as in-pit dumping.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

It is often necessary to fragment the overburden by use of explosives. This is accomplished by drilling holes into the overburden, filling the holes with explosives, and detonating the explosive. The overburden is then removed, using large earth-moving equipment, such as [[dragline]]s, [[Power shovel|shovel]] and trucks, [[excavator]] and trucks, or [[Bucket-wheel excavator|bucket-wheels]] and conveyors. This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip. When all the overburden is removed, the
underlying coal seam will be exposed (a 'block' of coal). This block of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded onto trucks or conveyors for transport to the coal preparation (or wash) plant. Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it. This method is most suitable for areas with flat terrain.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Equipment to be used depends on geological conditions. For example, to remove overburden that is loose or unconsolidated, a bucket wheel excavator might be the most productive. The life of some area mines may be more than 50 years.<ref name="Interior 1987">U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (1987). ''Surface coal mining reclamation: 10 years of progress, 1977–1987''. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.</ref>

====Contour mining====
The contour mining method consists of removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around the hillside. This method is most commonly used in areas with rolling to steep terrain. It was once common to deposit the spoil on the downslope side of the bench thus created, but this method of spoil disposal consumed much additional land and created severe landslide and erosion problems. To alleviate these problems, a variety of methods were devised to use freshly cut overburden to refill mined-out areas. These haul-back or lateral movement methods generally consist of an initial cut with the spoil deposited downslope or at some other site and spoil from the second cut refilling the first. A ridge of undisturbed natural material {{convert|15|to|20|ft|m|abbr=on|0}} wide is often intentionally left at the outer edge of the mined area. This barrier adds stability to the reclaimed slope by preventing spoil from slumping or sliding downhill.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The limitations of contour strip mining are both economic and technical. When the operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio (tons of overburden/tons of coal), it is not profitable to continue. Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of highwall. At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into a highwall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing the overburden.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

====Mountaintop removal mining====
{{Main|Mountaintop removal mining}}
Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills". Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Valley fills |url=https://archive.kftc.org/valley-fills |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=Kentuckians For The Commonwealth |language=en}}</ref>

[[Mountaintop removal mining]] combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with a coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts. Overburden is deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves the ridge and hilltops as flattened plateaus.<ref name="Christman, R.C. 1980"/> The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of creating ''head-of-hollow-fills'', or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mountainjusticesummer.org/facts/steps.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029154012/http://mountainjusticesummer.org/facts/steps.php|archive-date=29 October 2005|title=Mountain Justice Summer – What is Mountain Top Removal Mining?|date=29 October 2005}}</ref><ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Philadelphia, PA (2005). [http://www.epa.gov/region3/mtntop/eis2005.htm "Mountaintop mining/valley fills in Appalachia: Final programmatic environmental impact statement."]</ref>

Spoil is placed at the head of a narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow. In preparation for filling this area, vegetation and soil are removed and a rock drain constructed down the middle of the area to be filled, where a natural drainage course previously existed. When the fill is completed, this underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill. Typical head-of-hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable slopes.<ref name="Interior 1987"/>

===Underground mining===
{{Main|Underground soft-rock mining}}
[[File:Coal Washer.JPG|thumb|A coal wash plant in [[Clay County, Kentucky]]]]
[[File:Continuous Miner.jpg|thumb|A remote Joy HM21 continuous miner used underground]]
Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, a method that currently accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production.<ref name="CoalMining2009"/> In deep mining, the [[room and pillar|room and pillar or bord and pillar]] method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point limited by geology, ventilation, or economics, a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or [[retreat mining]], is commonly started. Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section.<ref>{{Citation |title=Room and pillar mining |date=2024-04-20 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Room_and_pillar_mining&oldid=1219912988 |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en}}</ref>

Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

There are six principal methods of underground mining:
* [[Longwall mining]] accounts for about 50 percent of underground production. The longwall shearer has a face of {{convert|1000|ft|m}} or more. It is a sophisticated machine with a rotating drum that moves mechanically back and forth across a wide coal seam. The loosened coal falls onto an armored chain conveyor or pan line that takes the coal to the conveyor belt for removal from the work area. Longwall systems have their own hydraulic roof supports which advance with the machine as mining progresses. As the longwall mining equipment moves forward, overlying rock that is no longer supported by coal is allowed to fall behind the operation in a controlled manner. The supports make possible high levels of production and safety. Sensors detect how much coal remains in the seam while robotic controls enhance efficiency. Longwall systems allow a 60-to-100 percent coal recovery rate when surrounding geology allows their use. Once the coal is removed, usually 75 percent of the section, the roof is allowed to collapse in a safe manner.<ref name="CoalMining2009" />
* [[Continuous mining]] utilizes a continuous miner machine with a large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide picks that scrape coal from the seam. Operating in a "room and pillar", also known as "bord and pillar" system, where the mine is divided into a series of 20-to-30-foot (5–10 m) "rooms" or work areas cut into the coalbed—it can mine as much as 14 tons of coal a minute, more than a non-mechanised mine of the 1920s would produce in an entire day. Continuous miners account for about 45 percent of underground coal production. [[Conveyor system|Conveyors]] transport the removed coal from the seam. Remote-controlled continuous miners are used to work in a variety of difficult seams and conditions, and robotic versions controlled by computers are becoming increasingly common. Continuous mining is a misnomer, as room and pillar coal mining is very cyclical. In the US, one can generally cut up to around {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us|0}}. This may be increased with [[Mine Safety and Health Administration|MSHA]] permission.  In South Africa, the limit may be as high as {{Convert|12|m|ft}}. After the cutting limit is reached, the continuous miner assembly is removed and the roof is supported by the use of a roof bolter, after which the face has to be serviced before it can be advanced again. During servicing, the "continuous" miner moves to another face. Some continuous miners can bolt and rock dust the face, two major components of servicing, while cutting coal, while a trained crew may be able to advance ventilation, to truly earn the "continuous" label. However, very few mines are able to achieve it. Most continuous mining machines in use in the US lack the ability to bolt and dust. This may partly be because the incorporation of bolting makes the machines wider, and therefore, less maneuverable.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rock bolt {{!}} Reinforcement, Anchoring & Stability {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/rock-bolt |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Room and pillar|Room and pillar mining]] consists of coal deposits that are mined by cutting a network of rooms into the coal seam. Pillars of coal are left behind in order to keep up the roof. The pillars can make up to forty percent of the total coal in the seam, however, where there was space to leave the head and floor coal there is evidence from recent open cast excavations that 18th-century operators used a variety of room and pillar techniques to remove 92 percent of the ''in situ'' coal. However, this can be extracted at a later stage (''see'' [[retreat mining]]).<ref name="CoalMining2009">{{cite web|title=Coal Mining. World Coal|work= World Coal Institute |date=10 March 2009 |url=http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=92>|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428202846/http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=92|archive-date=28 April 2009}}</ref>
* [[Rock blasting|Blast mining]] or conventional mining, is an older practice that uses [[explosive]]s such as [[dynamite]] to break up the coal seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. This process consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coalbed so it will break easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining accounts for less than 5 percent of total underground production in the US today.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
* [[Retreat mining]] is a method in which the pillars or coal ribs used to hold up the mine roof are extracted; allowing the mine roof to collapse as the mining works back towards the entrance. This is one of the most dangerous forms of mining, owing to imperfect predictability of when the roof will collapse and possibly crush or trap workers in the mine.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}