Editing Compassion (section)

== Theories on conceptualizing compassion ==
Theoretical perspectives show contrasts in their approaches to compassion.
:* Compassion is simply a variation of love or sadness, not a distinct emotion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shaver |first1=P |first2=J|last2=Schwartz |first3=D |last3=Kirson |first4=C |last4=O'Connor |date=June 1987 |title=Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1061–1086 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 |pmid=3598857}}</ref>
:* From the perspective of evolutionary [[psychology]], compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness, and love.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book |last=Bowlby |first=John |title=Attachment: Attachment and Loss Volume One |publisher=Basic Books |year=1983 |location=New York, NY}}
|2={{Cite book |last=Haidt |first=Jonathan |title=The Moral Emotions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |location=Oxford |pages=852–870}}
|3={{Cite book |last1=Keltner |first1=Dacher |title=Social Functionalism and the Evolution of Emotions |last2=Jonathan Haidt |last3=Michelle Shiota |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2006 |location=New York |pages=115–142}}
|4={{cite journal | last1=Goetz | first1=Jennifer L. | last2=Keltner | first2=Dacher | last3=Simon-Thomas | first3=Emiliana | title=Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. | journal=Psychological Bulletin | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=136 | issue=3 | year=2010 | issn=1939-1455 | doi=10.1037/a0018807 | pages=351–374| pmid=20438142 | pmc=2864937}}
}}</ref>
:* Compassion is, however, a synonym of [[empathic distress]], which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another person's suffering.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal |last1=Goetz |first1=Jennifer |last2=Dacher Kelter |last3=Emiliana Simon-Thomas |year=2010 |title=Compassion: An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=351–374 |doi=10.1037/a0018807 |pmc=2864937 |pmid=20438142}}
|2={{Cite book |last=Ekman |first=Paul |title=Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to improve communication and emotional life |publisher=Henry Holt & Company |year=2003 |location=New York, N.Y.}}
|3={{Cite journal |last1=Floyd |first1=Kory |last2=Ray |first2=Colter D. |last3=James |first3=Rebecca |last4=Anderson |first4=A. J. |date=2022-08-08 |title=Correlates of Compassion for Suffering Social Groups |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1041794X.2022.2086612 |journal=Southern Communication Journal |language=en |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=324–338 |doi=10.1080/1041794X.2022.2086612 |s2cid=249554862 |issn=1041-794X|url-access=subscription }}
}}</ref> This perspective of compassion is based on the finding that people sometimes emulate and feel the emotions of people around them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hatfield |first1=Elaine |last2=John Cacioppo |last3=Rapson |first3=Richard L. |year=1993 |title=Emotional Contagion |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=96–99 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953 |s2cid=220533081}}</ref>
:* According to [[Thupten Jinpa]], compassion is a ''sense of concern'' that arises in us in the face of someone who is in need or someone who is in pain. It is accompanied by a kind of a wishing (i.e. desire) to see the relief or end of that situation, along with wanting (i.e. [[motivation]]) to do something about it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2015 |title=Compassion is Natural. So Why Is It So Hard for Us? |url=https://bigthink.com/videos/thupten-jinpa-on-modern-day-compassion |access-date=28 November 2020 |website=Big Think |language=en}}</ref> Compassion is, however, not pity, neither an attachment, nor the same as empathetic feeling, nor even just simply wishful thinking. Compassion is basically a variation of love.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Science of Compassion |url=https://www.compassionateactionnetwork.org/science-of-compassion |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=CAN |language=en-US}}</ref> To further this variation of love, Skalski and Aanstoos, in their article [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022167819830782 The Phenomenology of Change Beyond Tolerating], describe compassion with the definition of [https://www.google.com/search?q=alleviate+definition&oq=alleviate+def&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUqDwgAEAAYFBiHAhixAxiABDIPCAAQABgUGIcCGLEDGIAEMgkIARBFGDkYgAQyBwgCEAAYgAQyBwgDEAAYgAQyDAgEEAAYFBiHAhiABDIHCAUQABiABDINCAYQLhivARjHARiABDIHCAcQABiABDIHCAgQABiABDIHCAkQABiABNIBCDE2MTdqMWo0qAIAsAIA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 alleviate] in mind. In the definition for alleviate there is no mention of taking, stopping, or fixing someone's suffering. It is simply trying to make it less severe. This has a connotation of desperation of sorts. Desiring so little from such a dire situation can be described as inspiring feelings to help with another's suffering in any way.
:* Emma Seppala distinguishes compassion from empathy and [[altruism]] as follows: "... The definition of compassion is often confused with that of empathy. Empathy, as defined by researchers, is the [[visceral]] or emotional experience of another person's feelings. It is, in a sense, an automatic mirroring of another's emotion, like tearing up at a friend's sadness. [[Altruism]] is an action that benefits someone else. It may or may not be accompanied by empathy or compassion, for example, in the case of making a donation for tax purposes. Although these terms are related to compassion, they are not identical. Compassion often involves an empathic response and [[Altruism|altruistic]] behavior; however, compassion is defined as the emotional response when perceiving suffering which involves an authentic desire to help."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seppala |first=Emma |date=30 April 2013 |title=The Compassionate Mind |url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/the-compassionate-mind |journal=APS Observer |language=en-US |volume=26 |issue=5}}</ref>

In addition, the more a person knows about the human condition and human experiences, the more vivid the route to identification with suffering becomes.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology">{{Cite book |last=Cassell |first=Eric |title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3 |edition=2 |location=New York City |pages=393–403}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2023}} Identifying with another person is an essential process for human beings, something that is even illustrated by infants who begin to mirror the facial expressions and body movements of their mother as early as the first days of their lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tissot |first1=H. |last2=Lapalus |first2=N. |last3=Frascarolo |first3=F. |last4=Despland |first4=J. |last5=Favez |first5=N |year=2022 |title=Family Alliance in Infancy and Toddlerhood Predicts Social Cognition in Adolescence |journal=Journal of Child & Family Studies |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=1338–1349 |doi=10.1007/s10826-021-02110-2 |s2cid=243248690 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Compassion is recognized through identifying with other people (i.e. [[perspective-taking]]), the knowledge of human behavior, the perception of suffering, the transfer of feelings, and the knowledge of goal and purpose-changes in sufferers which leads to the decline of their suffering.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" />{{Page needed|date=July 2023}}

[[Personality psychology]] agrees that human suffering is always individual and unique. Suffering can result from psychological, social, and physical [[Traumatic brain injury|trauma]]<ref name="cassell1995">{{Cite book |last=Cassell |first=Eric |title=The Healer's Art |publisher=MIT Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-262-53062-0}}</ref> which happens in acute and chronic forms.<ref name="cassell1995" /> [[Suffering]] has been defined as the perception of a person's impending destruction or loss of integrity, which continues until the threat is vanquished or the person's integrity can be restored.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" />{{Page needed|date=July 2023}}

Compassion therefore has three major requirements: the compassionate person must feel that the troubles that evoke their feelings are serious; the belief that the sufferers' troubles are not self-inflicted; and the ability to picture oneself with the same problems in a non-blaming, non-shaming manner.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" />{{Page needed|date=July 2023}}

Because the compassion process is highly related to identifying with another person and is possible among people from other countries, cultures, locations, etc., compassion is characteristic of democratic societies.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" />{{Page needed|date=July 2023}}

The role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Lee |date=1 January 1996 |title=Compassion and Societal Well-Being |journal=Pacific Philosophical Quarterly |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=216–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0114.1996.tb00167.x}}</ref> In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, a complete absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" />{{Page needed|date=July 2023}} Earlier{{Compared to?|date=July 2023}} studies established the links between interpersonal violence and cruelty which leads to indifference.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book |title=Child abuse, domestic violence, and animal abuse: linking the circles of compassion for prevention and intervention |date=1999 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=0-585-06389-3 |editor-last=Ascione |editor-first=Frank R. |location=West Lafayette, Ind. |oclc=42636597 |editor2-last=Arkow |editor2-first=Phil}}
|2={{Cite book |last=Randall |first=Lockwood |title=Cruelty to Animals and Interpersonal Violence: Readings in Research and Application |date=1998 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=1-55753-105-6 |oclc=231843225}}
}}</ref> Compassion may induce feelings of kindness and [[forgiveness]], which could give people the ability to stop situations that have the potential to be distressing and occasionally lead to violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dreisoerner |first1=Aljoscha |last2=Junker |first2=Nina Mareen |last3=van Dick |first3=Rolf |date=January 2021 |title=The Relationship Among the Components of Self-compassion: A Pilot Study Using a Compassionate Writing Intervention to Enhance Self-kindness, Common Humanity, and Mindfulness |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=21–47 |doi=10.1007/s10902-019-00217-4 |s2cid=254699280 |issn=1389-4978|doi-access=free }}</ref> This concept has been illustrated throughout history: [[The Holocaust]], [[genocide]], [[European colonization of the Americas]], etc.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Shira |last2=Ronel |first2=Natti |date=2019-09-14 |title=From Bondage to Liberation: The Forgiveness Case of Holocaust Survivor Eva Mozes Kor |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10926771.2018.1468376 |journal=Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma |language=en |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=996–1016 |doi=10.1080/10926771.2018.1468376 |issn=1092-6771|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The seemingly essential step in these atrocities could be the definition of the victims as "not human" or "not us".{{dubious|reason="seemingly" ... "could be"|date=July 2023}} The atrocities committed throughout human history are thus claimed{{By whom|date=July 2023}} to have only been relieved, minimized, or overcome in their damaging effects through the presence of compassion,<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology" />{{Page needed|date=July 2023}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Groot |first1=Marlies |last2=Schaafsma |first2=Juliette |last3=Castelain |first3=Thomas |last4=Malinowska |first4=Katarzyna |last5=Mann |first5=Liesbeth |last6=Ohtsubo |first6=Yohsuke |last7=Wulandari |first7=Maria Theresia Asti |last8=Bataineh |first8=Ruba Fahmi |last9=Fry |first9=Douglas P. |last10=Goudbeek |first10=Martijn |last11=Suryani |first11=Angela |date=December 2021 |title=Group-based shame, guilt, and regret across cultures |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2808 |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |volume=51 |issue=7 |pages=1198–1212 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2808 |pmid=35910663 |pmc=9306671 |issn=0046-2772}}</ref> although recently, drawing on empirical research in [[evolutionary theory]], [[developmental psychology]], [[social neuroscience]], and psychopathy, it has been counterargued that compassion or empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary, since over the course of history, mankind has created social structures for upholding universal moral principles, such as Human Rights and the [[International Criminal Court]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book |last=Decety |first=Jean |title=New Frontiers in Social Neuroscience |date=1 November 2014 |isbn=978-3-319-02903-0 |volume=21 |pages=127–151 |chapter=The Neuroevolution of Empathy and Caring for Others: Why It Matters for Morality |series=Research and Perspectives in Neurosciences |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02904-7_8 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287290900}}
|2={{Cite journal |last1=Decety |first1=J. |last2=Cowell |first2=J. M. |year=2014 |title=The complex relation between morality and empathy |url=http://spihub.org/site/resource_files/publications/spi_wp_135_decety.pdf |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=337–339 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.008 |pmid=24972506 |s2cid=355141}}
}}</ref>

On one hand, [[Thomas Nagel]], for instance, critiques [[Joshua Greene (psychologist)|Joshua Greene]] by suggesting that he is too quick to conclude [[utilitarianism]] specifically from the general goal of constructing an impartial morality; for example, he says, [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Rawls]] offer other impartial approaches to ethical questions.<ref name="Nagel2013">{{Cite magazine |last=Nagel |first=Thomas |date=2 November 2013 |title=You Can't Learn About Morality from Brain Scans: The problem with moral psychology |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/115279/joshua-greenes-moral-tribes-reviewed-thomas-nagel |magazine=New Republic |access-date=24 November 2013}}</ref>{{Relevance inline|reason=what does this argument have to do with compassion?|date=July 2023}}

In his defense against the possible destructive nature of passions, [[Plato]] compared the human soul to a chariot: the intellect is the driver and the emotions are the horses, and life is a continual struggle to keep the emotions under control.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stuart |first=Matthew |title=Agency: The Revised Account |date=2013-07-18 |work=Locke's Metaphysics |pages=443–492 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199645114.003.0010 |isbn=978-0-19-964511-4}}</ref> In his defense of a solid universal morality, Immanuel Kant saw compassion as a weak and misguided sentiment. "Such benevolence is called soft-heartedness and should not occur at all among human beings", he said of it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heim |first=M. |date=2003-09-01 |title=The Aesthetics of Excess |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=531–554 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfg076 |issn=0002-7189}}</ref>