Editing Computer ethics (section)

==History==
The concept of computer ethics originated in the 1940s with MIT professor [[Norbert Wiener]], the American mathematician and philosopher. While working on anti-aircraft artillery during [[World War II]], Wiener and his fellow engineers developed a system of communication between the part of a cannon that tracked a warplane, the part that performed calculations to estimate a trajectory, and the part responsible for firing.<ref name=BynumVeryShort/> Wiener termed the science of such information feedback systems, "[[cybernetics]]," and he discussed this new field with its related ethical concerns in his 1948 book, ''Cybernetics''.<ref name=BynumVeryShort/><ref name=BynumSEP>{{cite web |last1=Bynum |first1=Terrell |title=Computer Ethics: Basic Concepts and Historical Overview |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/ethics-computer/ |date=21 December 2014 |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University}}</ref> In 1950, Wiener's second book, ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]'', delved deeper into the ethical issues surrounding information technology and laid out the basic foundations of computer ethics.<ref name=BynumSEP/>

A bit later during the same year, the world's first [[computer crime]] was committed. A programmer was able to use a bit of computer code to stop his banking account from being flagged as overdrawn. However, there were no laws in place at that time to stop him, and as a result he was not charged.<ref name=BriefHistory>{{cite web |title=A Brief History of Computer Ethics |url=http://www.comphist.org/computing_history/new_page_5.htm |website=Learning Computing History |date=5 December 2004 |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722091502/http://www.comphist.org/computing_history/new_page_5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=Many grammatical errors. No references.|date=April 2015}} To make sure another person did not follow suit, an ethics code for computers was needed.

In 1973, the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM) adopted its first code of ethics.<ref name=BynumVeryShort/> [[SRI International]]'s [[Donn B. Parker|Donn Parker]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sri.com/about/alumni/alumni-hall-fame-2002#Parker|title=Alumni Hall of Fame: Donn Parker|publisher=SRI International|access-date=2013-06-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704050030/http://www.sri.com/about/alumni/alumni-hall-fame-2002#Parker|archive-date=2013-07-04|url-status=dead}}</ref> an author on computer crimes, led the committee that developed the code.<ref name=BynumVeryShort/>

In 1976, medical teacher and researcher Walter Maner noticed that ethical decisions are much harder to make when computers are added. He noticed a need for a different branch of ethics for when it came to dealing with computers. The term "computer ethics" was thus invented.<ref name=BynumVeryShort/><ref name=BynumSEP/>

In 1976 [[Joseph Weizenbaum]] made his second significant addition to the field of computer ethics. He published a book titled ''[[Computer Power and Human Reason]]'',<ref name=ObituaryWeizenbaum>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Joseph Weizenbaum |url=http://tech.mit.edu/V128/N12/weizenbaum.html |newspaper=The Tech |edition=Online |volume=128 |issue=12 |date=14 March 2008 |publisher=MIT News office |location=Cambridge, MA |access-date=29 April 2015 |archive-date=9 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209130151/http://tech.mit.edu/V128/N12/weizenbaum.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> which talked about how [[artificial intelligence]] is good for the world; however it should never be allowed to make the most important decisions as it does not have human qualities such as wisdom. By far the most important point he makes in the book is the distinction between choosing and deciding. He argued that deciding is a computational activity while making choices is not and thus the ability to make choices is what makes us humans.

At a later time during the same year [[Abbe Mowshowitz]], a professor of Computer Science at the City College of New York, published an article titled "On approaches to the study of social issues in computing." This article identified and analyzed technical and non-technical biases in research on social issues present in computing.

During 1978, the [[Right to Financial Privacy Act]] was adopted by the United States Congress, drastically limiting the government's ability to search bank records.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Right to Financial Privacy Act |website=Electronic Privacy Information Center |url=https://epic.org/privacy/rfpa/ |access-date=29 April 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418225108/https://epic.org/privacy/rfpa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the next year [[Terrell Ward Bynum]], the professor of philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University as well as Director of the Research Center on Computing and Society there, developed curriculum for a university course on computer ethics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~ear/cs349/Bynum_Short_History.html|title=A Very Short History of Computer Ethics ( Text Only) - The Research Center on Computing & Society|website=www.cs.utexas.edu|access-date=2020-02-26|archive-date=2020-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128182408/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~ear/cs349/Bynum_Short_History.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Bynum was also editor of the journal ''[[Metaphilosophy (journal)|Metaphilosophy]].''<ref name=BynumVeryShort/> In 1983 the journal held an essay contest on the topic of computer ethics and published the winning essays in its best-selling 1985 special issue, “Computers and Ethics.”<ref name=BynumVeryShort/>

In 1984, the United States Congress passed the Small Business Computer Security and Education Act, which created a [[Small Business Administration]] advisory council to focus on computer security related to small businesses.<ref>{{USBill|98|HR|3075|pipe=Small Business Computer Security and Education Act of 1984|site=yes}}</ref>

In 1985, [[James Moor]], professor of philosophy at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, published an essay called "What is Computer Ethics?"<ref name=BynumSEP/> In this essay Moor states the computer ethics includes the following: "(1) identification of computer-generated policy vacuums, (2) clarification of conceptual muddles, (3) formulation of policies for the use of computer technology, and (4) ethical justification of such policies."<ref name=BynumVeryShort/>

During the same year, [[Deborah G. Johnson]], professor of Applied Ethics and chair of the Department of Science, Technology, and Society in the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences of the University of Virginia, got the first major computer ethics textbook published.<ref name=BynumSEP/> Johnson's textbook identified major issues for research in computer ethics for more than 10 years after publication of the first edition.<ref name=BynumSEP/>

In 1988, Robert Hauptman, a librarian at St. Cloud University, came up with "[[information ethics]]", a term that was used to describe the storage, production, access and dissemination of information.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics {{!}} Wiley|url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Handbook+of+Information+and+Computer+Ethics-p-9780471799597|access-date=2020-12-06|website=Wiley.com|language=en-us|archive-date=2022-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206113051/https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Handbook+of+Information+and+Computer+Ethics-p-9780471799597|url-status=live}}</ref> Near the same time, the [[Privacy Act of 1974#Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act|Computer Matching and Privacy Act]] was adopted and this act restricted United States government programs identifying debtors.<ref>{{USBill|100|S|496|pipe=Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act of 1988|site=yes}}</ref>

In the year 1992, ACM adopted a new set of ethical rules called "ACM code of Ethics and Professional Conduct"<ref name=ACMethics>{{cite web|url=http://www.acm.org/about/code-of-ethics|title=ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct|publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]|date=16 October 1992|access-date=2014-08-09|archive-date=2014-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805235706/http://www.acm.org/about/code-of-ethics|url-status=live}}</ref> which consisted of 24 statements of personal responsibility.

Three years later, in 1995, Krystyna Górniak-Kocikowska, a professor of philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University, Coordinator of the Religious Studies Program, as well as a senior research associate in the Research Center on Computing and Society, came up with the idea that computer ethics will eventually become a global ethical system and soon after, computer ethics would replace ethics altogether as it would become the standard ethics of the information age.<ref name=BynumSEP/>

In 1999, Deborah Johnson revealed her view, which was quite contrary to Górniak-Kocikowska's belief, and stated that computer ethics will not evolve but rather be our old ethics with a slight twist.<ref name=":1" />

Post 20th century, as a result to much debate of ethical guidelines, many organizations such as ABET<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abet.org/about-abet/|title=About ABET {{!}} ABET|website=www.abet.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-03|archive-date=2018-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612222730/http://www.abet.org/about-abet/|url-status=live}}</ref> offer ethical accreditation to University or College applications such as "Applied and Natural Science, Computing, Engineering and Engineering Technology at the associate, bachelor, and master levels" to try and promote quality works that follow sound ethical and moral guidelines.