Editing Computer mouse (section)

== History{{anchor|X- and Y- Position Indicator}} ==
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=== Stationary trackballs ===
The [[trackball]], a related pointing device, was invented in 1946 by [[Ralph Benjamin]] as part of a post-[[World War II]]-era [[fire-control system|fire-control]] [[radar]] plotting system called the [[Comprehensive Display System]] (CDS). Benjamin was then working for the British [[Royal Navy]] Scientific Service. Benjamin's project used [[analog computer]]s to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a [[joystick]]. Benjamin felt that a more elegant [[input device]] was needed and invented what they called a "roller ball" for this purpose.<ref name="Copping_2013_Benjamin" /><ref name="Hill_2005_Benjamin" />

The device was patented in 1947,<ref name="Hill_2005_Benjamin">{{cite web |title=RALPH BENJAMIN: An Interview Conducted by Peter C. J. Hill |editor-first=Peter C. J. |editor-last=Hill |publisher=IEEE History Center, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. |date=2005-09-16 |type=Interview |series=Interview #465 |url=http://ethw.org/Oral-History:Ralph_Benjamin |access-date=2013-07-18}}</ref> but only a prototype using a metal ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret.<ref name="Copping_2013_Benjamin">{{cite web |title=Briton: 'I invented the computer mouse 20 years before the Americans' |author-first=Jasper |author-last=Copping |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group|The Telegraph]] |date=2013-07-11 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10174366/Briton-I-invented-the-computer-mouse-20-years-before-the-Americans.html |access-date=2013-07-18}}</ref>

Another early trackball was built by [[Kenyon Taylor]], a British [[electrical engineering|electrical engineer]] working in collaboration with Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff. Taylor was part of the original [[Ferranti Canada]], working on the [[Royal Canadian Navy]]'s [[DATAR]] (Digital Automated Tracking and Resolving) system in 1952.<ref name="Vardalas_1994_DATAR">{{cite journal |doi=10.1109/85.279228 |title=From DATAR to the FP-6000: Technological change in a Canadian industrial context |date=1994 |author-last=Vardalas |author-first=J. |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=20–30 |s2cid=15277748 |url=https://ewh.ieee.org/reg/7/millennium/fp6000/fp6000_datar.html| issn = 1058-6180|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamin's display. The trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. Several rollers provided mechanical support. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, producing pulses of output with each movement of the ball. By counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A [[computer#Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits|digital computer]] calculated the tracks and sent the resulting data to other ships in a task force using [[pulse-code modulation]] radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian [[five-pin bowling]] ball. It was not patented, since it was a secret military project.<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrzgS5SoMzcC&q=intitle:%22Pioneers+in+Canadian+Electrical+Manufacturing%22 |title=Ferranti-Packard: Pioneers in Canadian Electrical Manufacturing |author-first1=Norman R. |author-last1=Ball |author-first2=John N. |author-last2=Vardalas |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's Press]] |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7735-0983-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/fp6000/fp6000_datar.html |title=FP-6000 -- From DATAR To The FP-6000 |work=ieee.ca |access-date=2021-06-28  |archive-date=2019-04-04  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404053248/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/fp6000/fp6000_datar.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Engelbart's first "mouse" ===
{{anchor|Engelbart}}<!-- NOTE: Please see the discussion at File:firstmouseunderside.jpg before trying to replace this image with File: SRI Computer Mouse.jpg. The usage is not equivalent to the free image, as it illustrates the technical details and size of the device. -->[[File:firstmouseunderside.jpg|thumb|Inventor [[Douglas Engelbart]] holding the first computer mouse,<ref>{{cite web |title=First mouse – CERN Courier |url=http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28358/1/cernbooks2_12-00 |website=cerncourier.com |access-date=2015-06-24}}</ref> showing the wheels that make contact with the working surface]]

[[Douglas Engelbart]] of the Stanford Research Institute (now [[SRI International]]) has been credited in published books by [[Thierry Bardini]],<ref name="Bardini_2000_2" /> [[Paul Ceruzzi]],<ref name="Ceruzzi_2012" /> [[Howard Rheingold]],<ref name="Rheingold_2000" /> and several others<ref name="Lyon_1998" /><ref name="Hey">{{cite book |author-last1=Hey |author-first1=Tony |author-last2=Pápay |author-first2=Gyuri |title=The Computing Universe: A Journey through a Revolution |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-316-12322-5 |page=162 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4FIBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA162}}</ref><ref name="Atkinson">{{cite book |author-last=Atkinson |author-first=Paul |title=Computer |date=2010 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-86189-737-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/computer0000atki/page/63 63] |url=https://archive.org/details/computer0000atki |url-access=registration}}</ref> as the inventor of the computer mouse. Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013.<ref name="Khazan">{{cite news |author-last=Khazan |author-first=Olga |title=Douglas Engelbart, computer visionary and inventor of the mouse, dies at 88 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/douglas-engelbart-computer-visionary-and-inventor-of-the-mouse-dies-at-88/2013/07/03/1439b508-0264-11e2-9b24-ff730c7f6312_story.html |access-date=2017-01-18 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |publisher=WP Company |date=2013-07-03}}</ref><ref name="Markoff">{{cite news |author-last=Markoff |author-first=John |title=Computer Visionary Who Invented the Mouse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/technology/douglas-c-engelbart-inventor-of-the-computer-mouse-dies-at-88.html |access-date=2017-01-18 |work=The New York Times |date=2013-07-03 |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Arnold">{{cite news |author-last=Arnold |author-first=Laurence |title=Douglas Engelbart, Computer Mouse Creator, Visionary, Dies at 88 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-07-03/douglas-engelbart-computer-mouse-creator-visionary-dies-at-88 |access-date=2017-01-18 |work=Bloomberg |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=2013-07-03}}</ref><ref name="Chappell">{{cite news |author-last=Chappell |author-first=Bill |title=Inventor Of Computer Mouse Dies; Doug Engelbart Was 88 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/07/03/198448726/inventor-of-computer-mouse-dies-doug-engelbart-was-88 |access-date=2017-01-18 |work=The Two Way: Breaking News from NPR |publisher=NPR |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>

By 1963, Engelbart had already established a research lab at SRI, the [[Augmentation Research Center]] (ARC), to pursue his objective of developing both hardware and software computer technology to "augment" human intelligence. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in [[Reno, Nevada]], Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the [[planimeter]] to inputting X- and Y-coordinate data.<ref name="Bardini_2000_2" /> On 14 November 1963, he first recorded his thoughts in his personal notebook about something he initially called a "[[bug (computer mouse)|bug]]", which is a "3-point" form could have a "drop point and 2 orthogonal wheels".<ref name="Markoff_2005" /><ref name="Bardini_2000_2" /> He wrote that the "bug" would be "easier" and "more natural" to use, and unlike a stylus, it would stay still when let go, which meant it would be "much better for coordination with the keyboard".<ref name="Bardini_2000_2" />

[[File:Computer mouse prototype bottom.jpg|left|thumb|Bottom view of a replica of the Engelbart mouse]]

In 1964, [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]] joined ARC, where he helped Engelbart build the first mouse prototype.<ref name="Bardini_2000" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/1137400/mouse40.html |title=The computer mouse turns 40 |work=[[Macworld]] |author-first=Benj |author-last=Edwards |date=2008-12-09 |access-date=2009-04-16}}</ref> They christened the device the ''mouse'' as early models had a cord attached to the rear part of the device which looked like a tail, and in turn, resembled the common [[mouse]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stason.org/TULARC/languages/english-usage/51-mouses-vs-mice-Usage-disputes-alt-usage-english.html |title="Mouses" vs "mice" |work=The Ultimate Learn And Resource Center |access-date=2017-07-09}}</ref> According to Roger Bates, a hardware designer under English, another reason for choosing this name was because the cursor on the screen was also referred to as "CAT" at this time.<ref name="Markoff_2005" /><ref name="Markoff_2013" />

As noted above, this "mouse" was first mentioned in print in a July 1965 report, on which English was the lead author.<ref name="OED" /><ref name="Bardini_2000" /><ref name="English_1965" /> On 9 December 1968, Engelbart publicly demonstrated the mouse at what would come to be known as [[The Mother of All Demos]]. Engelbart never received any royalties for it, as his employer SRI held the patent, which expired before the mouse became widely used in personal computers.<ref>{{cite news |author-first=Shiels |author-last=Maggie |title=Say goodbye to the computer mouse |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7508842.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2008-07-17 |access-date=2008-07-17}}</ref> In any event, the invention of the mouse was just a small part of Engelbart's much larger project of augmenting human intellect.<ref>{{citation |title=Evolving Collective Intelligence |author-last1=Engelbart |author-first1=Douglas C. |author-link1=Douglas C. Engelbart |author-last2=Landau |author-last3=Clegg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/video/smithsonian-channel/The-Demo-That-Changed-the-World.html |title=The Demo That Changed the World |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228005323/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/video/smithsonian-channel/The-Demo-That-Changed-the-World.html |archive-date=2012-12-28}}</ref>

[[File:Mouse-patents-englebart-rid.png|thumb|right|Early mouse patents. From left to right: Opposing track wheels by Engelbart, November 1970, {{US patent|3541541}}. Ball and Wheel by ''Rider'', September 1974, {{US patent|3835464}}. Ball and two rollers with spring by Opocensky, October 1976, {{US patent|3987685}}]]

Several other experimental pointing-devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System ([[NLS (computer system)|NLS]]) exploited different body movements –&nbsp;for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose&nbsp;– but ultimately the mouse won out because of its speed and convenience.<ref>{{citation |author-last=Engelbart |author-first=Douglas C. |author-link=Douglas C. Engelbart |title=Display-Selection Techniques for Text Manipulation |publisher=IEEE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics |pages=5–15 |date=March 1967 |url=https://www.dougengelbart.org/content/view/145/000/ |access-date=2013-03-26}}</ref> The first mouse, a bulky device (pictured) used two [[potentiometer]]s perpendicular to each other and connected to wheels: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one [[coordinate system|axis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dougengelbart.org/content/view/145/000/ |title=Display-Selection Techniques for Text Manipulation – 1967 (AUGMENT, 133184) – Doug Engelbart Institute |author-last=Engelbart |author-first=Christina |website=dougengelbart.org |access-date=2016-03-15}}</ref> At the time of the "Mother of All Demos", Engelbart's group had been using their second-generation, 3-button mouse for about a year.

=== First rolling-ball mouse ===
{{anchor|Rollkugel}}[[File:Telefunken Rollkugel RKS 100-86.jpg|thumb|left|The ball-based [[Telefunken]] {{lang|de|Rollkugelsteuerung}} ''RKS&nbsp;100-86'' from 1968]]

On 2 October 1968, three years after Engelbart's prototype but more than two months before his public [[The Mother of All Demos|demo]], a mouse device named ''{{lang|de|Rollkugelsteuerung}}'' (German for "Trackball control") was shown in a sales brochure by the German company [[AEG (German company)|AEG]]-[[Telefunken]] as an optional input device for the SIG&nbsp;100 vector graphics terminal, part of the system around their process computer [[Telefunken TR 86|TR&nbsp;86]] and the {{ill|Telefunken TR 440{{!}}TR 440|de|TR&nbsp;440}} main frame.<ref name="Neubauer_1968" /><ref name="CHM_SIG-100" /><ref name="Telefunken_1971" /><ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /> Based on an even earlier<!-- somewhen between 1963 and 1965 --> trackball device, the mouse device had been developed by the company in 1966 in what had been a parallel and [[independent discovery]].<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> As the name suggests and unlike Engelbart's mouse, the Telefunken model already had a ball (diameter 40&nbsp;mm, weight 40&nbsp;g<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" />) and two mechanical 4-bit<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /> rotational [[position transducer]]s<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /> with [[Gray code]]-like<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /><ref group="nb" name="NB_Rollkugel_Encoder" /> states, allowing easy movement in any direction.<ref name="Ebner_2018" /> The bits remained stable for at least two successive states to relax [[debouncing]] requirements.<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="Mueller_2018" /> This arrangement was chosen so that the data could also be transmitted to the TR&nbsp;86 front-end process computer and over longer distance [[telex line]]s with {{circa}}{{sp}}50&nbsp;[[baud]].<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> Weighing {{convert|465|g}}, the device with a total height of about {{cvt|7|cm}} came in a {{circa}}{{sp}}{{cvt|12|cm}} diameter hemispherical injection-molded thermoplastic casing featuring one central push button.<ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" />

[[File:Telefunken Rollkugel RKS 100-86 (bottom).jpg|thumb|right|The bottom side of the Telefunken {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} ''RKS&nbsp;100-86'' shows the ball]]

As noted above, the device was based on an earlier trackball-like device (also named ''{{lang|de|[[Rollkugel (trackball device)|Rollkugel]]}}'') that was embedded into radar flight control desks.<ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> This trackball had been originally developed by a team led by {{ill|Rainer Mallebrein|de}} at Telefunken {{lang|de|Konstanz}} for the German ''{{lang|de|{{ill|Bundesanstalt für Flugsicherung|de}}}}'' (Federal Air Traffic Control). It was part of the corresponding workstation system SAP&nbsp;300 and the terminal SIG&nbsp;3001, which had been designed and developed since 1963.<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> Development for the TR&nbsp;440 main frame began in 1965.<ref name="Telefunken_1966" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> This led to the development of the TR&nbsp;86 process computer system with its SIG&nbsp;100-86<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="CHM_SIG-100" /> terminal. Inspired by a discussion with a university customer, Mallebrein came up with the idea of "reversing" the existing {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} trackball into a moveable mouse-like device in 1966,<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> so that customers did not have to be bothered with mounting holes for the earlier trackball device. The device was finished in early 1968<!-- Steinbach has an obvious typo: 1966/1968 -->,<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> and together with [[light pen]]s and [[trackball]]s, it was commercially offered as an optional input device for their system starting later that year.<ref name="Neubauer_1968" /><ref name="CHM_SIG-100" /><ref name="Telefunken_1971" /><ref name="Telefunken_1972" /> Not all customers opted to buy the device, which added costs of {{currency|1500|DM}} per piece to the already up to 20-million DM deal for the main frame, of which only a total of 46 systems were sold or leased.<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="Holland_2019" /> They were installed at more than 20 German universities including [[RWTH Aachen]], [[Technische Universität Berlin]], [[University of Stuttgart]]<ref name="Vaihingen_2016" /><ref name="Borchers_2016" /> and [[University of Konstanz|Konstanz]].<ref name="Ebner_2018" /> Several {{lang|de|Rollkugel}} mice installed at the [[Leibniz Supercomputing Centre]] in Munich in 1972 are well preserved in a museum<!-- another sources states that Garching/Munich has 4 Rollkugeln -->,<ref name="Bülow_2009_Rollkugel" /><ref name="OldMouse_Telefunken" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> two others survived in a museum at Stuttgart University,<ref name="Vaihingen_2016" /><ref name="Yacoub-Turfa-Maurer_2016" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> two in Hamburg<!-- one at the university, the other at Jürgen Müller -->, the one from Aachen at the [[Computer History Museum]] in the US,<ref name="CHM_RKS-100" /><ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /> and yet another sample was recently donated to the [[Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum]] (HNF) in Paderborn.<ref name="HNF_2019_Presentation" /><ref name="Holland_2019" /> Anecdotal reports claim that Telefunken's attempt to patent the device was rejected by the German Patent Office due to lack of inventiveness.<ref name="HNF_2016_Blog" /><ref name="Ebner_2018" /><ref name="Holland_2019" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> For the air traffic control system, the Mallebrein team had already developed a precursor to [[touch screen]]s in form of an ultrasonic-curtain-based pointing device in front of the display.<ref name="Steinbach_2018" /> In 1970, they developed a device named "[[Touchinput]]-{{lang|de|Einrichtung}}" ("touch input device") based on a conductively coated glass screen.<ref name="Ebner_2018" /><ref name="Steinbach_2018" />

=== First mice on personal computers and workstations ===
[[File:Hil-mouse.jpg|right|thumb|HP-HIL Mouse from 1984]]

{{anchor|Xerox Alto}}The [[Xerox Alto]] was one of the first computers designed for individual use in 1973 and is regarded as the first modern computer to use a mouse.<ref>{{cite web |title=ACM Turing Award Goes to Creator of First Modern Personal Computer |url=https://www.acm.org/binaries/content/assets/press-releases/2010/march/turing-award-09-1.pdf |publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery]] |author-first=Virginia |author-last=Gold |access-date=2011-01-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311223801/http://www.acm.org/press-room/news-releases/2010/turing-award-09 |archive-date=2010-03-11}}</ref> [[Alan Kay]] designed the 16-by-16 mouse cursor icon with its left edge vertical and right edge 45-degrees so it displays well on the bitmap.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A brief history of the mouse cursor, from Engelbart to PARC |url=https://jameshk.com/mouse-cursor |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=A brief history of the mouse cursor, from Engelbart to PARC |language=en}}</ref>{{anchor|Lilith}}Inspired by [[Palo Alto Research Center|PARC]]'s Alto, the [[Lilith (computer)|Lilith]], a computer which had been developed by a team around [[Niklaus Wirth]] at [[ETH Zürich]] between 1978 and 1980, provided a mouse as well. {{anchor|Xerox Star}}The third marketed version of an integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the [[Xerox Star|Xerox 8010 Star]] in 1981.

By 1982, the Xerox 8010 was probably the best-known computer with a mouse. The [[Sun-1]] also came with a mouse, and the forthcoming [[Apple Lisa]] was rumored to use one, but the peripheral remained obscure; Jack Hawley of The Mouse House reported that one buyer for a large organization believed at first that his company sold [[laboratory mouse|lab mice]]. Hawley, who manufactured mice for Xerox, stated that "Practically, I have the market all to myself right now"; a Hawley mouse cost $415.<ref name="markoff19820510">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=Computer mice are scurrying out of R&D labs |work=[[InfoWorld]] |date=1982-05-10 |access-date=2015-08-26 |author-last=Markoff |author-first=John |pages=10–11}}</ref> In 1982, [[Logitech]] introduced the P4 Mouse at the Comdex trade show in Las Vegas, its first hardware mouse.<ref>{{cite web |title=Logitech History, March 2007 |url=https://www.logitech.com/lang/pdf/logitech_history_200703.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221120203/http://www.logitech.com/lang/pdf/logitech_history_200703.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-21 |url-status=live |publisher=Logitech |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> That same year [[Microsoft]] made the decision to make the [[MS-DOS]] program [[Microsoft Word]] mouse-compatible, and developed the first PC-compatible mouse. The [[Microsoft Mouse]] shipped in 1983, thus beginning the [[Microsoft hardware|Microsoft Hardware]] division of the company.<ref name="mshw">{{cite web |title=30 Years Of Microsoft Hardware |url=http://www.microsoft.com/hardware/en-us/30-years-of-hardware |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |access-date=2012-07-15}}</ref> However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the [[Macintosh 128K]] (which included an updated version of the single-button<ref>{{cite web |author1=Tekla S. Perry |title=Of Modes and Men |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/of-modes-and-men |website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News |publisher=IEEE |language=en |date=2005-08-01}}</ref> [[Apple Mouse#Lisa Mouse (A9M0050)|Lisa Mouse]]) in 1984,<ref>{{cite news |author-first=John C. |author-last=Dvorak |author-link=John C. Dvorak |work=[[The San Francisco Examiner]] |title=The Mac Meets the Press |date=1984-02-19 |isbn=978-1-59327-010-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXnw5tM8QRwC&pg=PA119}}</ref> and of the [[Amiga 1000]] and the [[Atari ST]] in 1985. Aftermarket mice were offered, from the mid 1980s, for many 8-bit home computers, the like of the [[Commodore 1351]] being offered for the Commodore 64 and 128, as was the NEOS Mouse that was also offered for the [[MSX]] range, while the [[AMX Mouse]] was offered for the Acorn BBC Micro and Electron, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, and Amstrad CPC lines.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stefan |title=AMX Mouse - Classic Computer Brochures |url=https://classic.technology/amx-mouse/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=classic.technology |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chris's Acorns: Advanced Memory Systems AMX Mouse |url=http://chrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk/8bit_Upgrades/AMX_Mouse.html |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=chrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ElectronUserVolume4/Electron-User-04-03/page/n3/mode/1up |title=Electron User Volume 4 1986-1987}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CRASH 27 - AMX Mouse |url=https://www.crashonline.org.uk/27/amxmouse.htm |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=www.crashonline.org.uk}}</ref>