Editing Croatia (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of Croatia}}

=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
{{main|History of Croatia before the Croats}}
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| alt1              = Ceramic sculpture
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| alt2              = Stone Sculpture
| footer            = Left: The [[Vučedol dove]], a sculpture from 2800–2500 BC.<br />Right: ''[[Croatian Apoxyomenos]]'', [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] statue, 2nd or 1st century BC.
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The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the [[prehistoric period]]. [[Neanderthal]] fossils dating to the middle [[Palaeolithic]] period were unearthed in northern Croatia, best presented at the [[Krapina Neanderthal site|Krapina site]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Acta medico-historica Adriatica|publisher=Hrvatsko znanstveno društvo za povijest zdravstvene kulture|issn=1334-4366|date=December 2010|volume=8|issue=2|first=Igor|last=Salopek|title=Krapina Neanderthal Museum as a Well of Medical Information|pages=197–202|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=95232|access-date=15 October 2011|pmid=21682056}}</ref> Remnants of [[Neolithic]] and [[Chalcolithic]] cultures were found in all regions.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Opvscvla Archaeologica Radovi Arheološkog Zavoda|publisher=[[University of Zagreb]], Faculty of Philosophy, Archaeological Department|issn=0473-0992|title=Study of the Neolithic and Eneolithic as reflected in articles published over the 50 years of the journal Opuscula archaeologica|pages=93–122|volume=30|issue=1|date=April 2008|first=Tihomila|last=Težak-Gregl|access-date=15 October 2011|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=34026}}</ref> The largest proportion of sites is in the valleys of northern Croatia. The most significant are [[Baden culture|Baden]], [[Starčevo culture|Starčevo]], and [[Vučedol culture]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Opvscvla Archaeologica Radovi Arheološkog Zavoda|publisher=University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, Archaeological Department|issn=0473-0992|title=The Kostolac horizon at Vučedol|pages=25–40|volume=29|issue=1|date=December 2005| first=Jacqueline| last=Balen|access-date=15 October 2011|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=26644}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Opvscvla Archaeologica Radovi Arheološkog Zavoda|publisher=University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, Archaeological Department|issn=0473-0992|title=Prilog poznavanju neolitičkih obrednih predmeta u neolitiku sjeverne Hrvatske|trans-title=A Contribution to Understanding Neolithic Ritual Objects in the Northern Croatia Neolithic|language=hr|pages=43–48|volume=27|issue=1|date=December 2003|first=Tihomila|last=Težak-Gregl|access-date=15 October 2011|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=26644}}</ref> [[Iron Age]] hosted the early Illyrian [[Hallstatt culture]] and the Celtic [[La Tène culture]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Potrebica |first1=Hrvoje |last2=Dizdar |first2=Marko |title=Prilog poznavanju naseljenosti Vinkovaca i okolice u starijem željeznom dobu |trans-title=A Contribution to Understanding Continuous Habitation of Vinkovci and its Surroundings in the Early Iron Age |url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=1560 |journal=Prilozi Instituta Za Arheologiju U Zagrebu |publisher=Institut za arheologiju |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=79–100 |date=July 2002 |access-date=15 October 2011 |issn=1330-0644 |language=hr}}</ref>

The region of modern-day Croatia was settled by [[Illyrians]] and [[Liburnians]], while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of [[Hvar]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C|first=John|last=Wilkes|title=The Illyrians|year=1995|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-631-19807-9|page=114|quote=...&nbsp;in the early history of the colony settled in 385&nbsp;BC on the island Pharos (Hvar) from the Aegean island Paros, famed for its marble. In traditional fashion they accepted the guidance of an oracle,&nbsp;... |access-date=15 October 2011}}</ref> [[Korčula]], and [[Vis (island)|Vis]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/15826619/John-Wilkes-The-Illyrians|first=John|last=Wilkes|title=The Illyrians|year=1995|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-631-19807-9|page=115|quote=The third Greek colony known in this central sector of the Dalmatian coast was Issa, on the north side of the island Vis.|access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref> In 9&nbsp;AD, the territory of today's Croatia became part of the [[Roman Empire]]. Emperor [[Diocletian]] was native to the region. He [[Diocletian's Palace|had a large palace built]] in [[Split, Croatia|Split]], to which he retired after abdicating in AD 305.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Edward|last1=Gibbon|author2-link=John Bagnell Bury|author2=John Bagnell Bury|author3-link=Daniel J. Boorstin|first3=Daniel J.|last3=Boorstin|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|publisher=[[Modern Library]]|year=1995|location=New York|page=335|isbn=978-0-679-60148-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bdKLyie1M50C|access-date=27 October 2011|author1-link=Edward Gibbon}}</ref>

During the 5th century, the [[last de jure Western Roman Emperor]] [[Julius Nepos]] ruled a small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy in 475.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflaterro01buryuoft|author=J. B. Bury|title=History of the later Roman empire from the death of Theodosius I. to the death of Justinian|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyoflaterro01buryuoft/page/408 408]|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]]|year=1923|access-date=15 October 2011|author-link=J. B. Bury}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
{{main|Duchy of Croatia|Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)|Kingdom of Croatia (1102–1526)|Republic of Ragusa}}

[[File:Balkans925.png|thumb|left|upright=1.2|[[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)|Kingdom of Croatia]] c.&nbsp;925, during the reign of [[King Tomislav]]]]
The Roman period ends with [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avar]] and [[Croat]] invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city of [[Dubrovnik]] was founded by such survivors from [[Epidaurum]].<ref name="AAPatton">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_E_NBAAAAYAAJ|title=Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic|author=Andrew Archibald Paton|year=1861|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_E_NBAAAAYAAJ/page/n227 218]–219|publisher=Trübner|access-date=15 October 2011}}</ref>

There's some uncertainty about the [[Origin hypotheses of the Croats|ethnogenesis of Croats]]. The most accepted theory, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of [[White Croats]] from [[White Croatia]] during the [[Migration Period]]. Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes [[Sarmatian]]-[[Alans|Alanic]] origin of Proto-Croats, based on [[Tanais Tablets]] containing [[Ancient Greek]] inscriptions of given names ''Χορούαθος'', ''Χοροάθος'', and ''Χορόαθος'' (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as [[anthroponym]]s related to the [[Names of the Croats and Croatia|Croatian ethnonym]].<ref name="Nikšić-Heršak">{{cite journal|journal=Migracijske i Etničke Teme|issn=1333-2546|publisher=Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies|date=September 2007|volume=23|issue=3|pages=251–268|first1=Emil|last1=Heršak|first2=Boris|last2=Nikšić|language=hr|title=Hrvatska etnogeneza: pregled komponentnih etapa i interpretacija (s naglaskom na euroazijske/nomadske sadržaje)|trans-title=Croatian Ethnogenesis: A Review of Component Stages and Interpretations (with Emphasis on Eurasian/Nomadic Elements) | url = http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=28729&lang=en}}</ref>

According to the work ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'' written by 10th-century Byzantine Emperor [[Constantine VII]], [[Croats]] settled in the [[Roman province of Dalmatia]] in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Katičić|first=Radoslav|date=1989|title=Ivan Mužić o podrijetlu Hrvata|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/95425|journal=Starohrvatska Prosvjeta|language=hr|volume=III|issue=19|pages=243–270|issn=0351-4536}}</ref>{{sfn|Goldstein|1999|p=13}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Birin|first=Ante|title=Pregled političke povijesti Hrvata u ranome srednjem vijeku|url=https://www.academia.edu/30936317|journal=Nova Zraka U Europskom Svjetlu – Hrvatske Zemlje U Ranome Srednjem Vijeku (Oko 550 – Oko 1150)|date=January 2015|language=hr|page=40|via=Academia.edu}}</ref> Although there exist some scholarly disputes about the account's reliability and interpretation,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bilogrivić |first=Goran |date=2018 |chapter=Carolingian Weapons and the Problem of Croat Migration and Ethnogenesis |title=Migration, Integration and Connectivity on the Southeastern Frontier of the Carolingian Empire |editor=Danijel Dzino |editor2=Ante Milošević |editor3=Trpimir Vedriš |publisher=Brill |pages=86–99 |doi=10.1163/9789004380134_007 |isbn=978-90-04-38013-4 |s2cid=165889390}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Danijel |last=Dzino |year=2010 |title=Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat: Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UbOtJcF8rQC |publisher=BRILL |pages=175, 179–182 |isbn=9789004186460}}</ref> recent archaeological data has established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century.<ref name="Belos00">{{cite journal |last=Belošević |first=Janko |title=Razvoj i osnovne značajke starohrvatskih grobalja horizonta 7.-9. stoljeća na povijesnim prostorima Hrvata |url=https://morepress.unizd.hr/journals/index.php/pov/article/view/2231 |journal=Radovi |volume=39 |issue=26 |pages=71–97 |date=2000 |language=hr |doi=10.15291/radovipov.2231|doi-access=free | issn=0352-6712}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fabijanić |first=Tomislav |date=2013 |chapter=14C date from early Christian basilica gemina in Podvršje (Croatia) in the context of Slavic settlement on the eastern Adriatic coast |title=The early Slavic settlement of Central Europe in the light of new dating evidence |location=Wroclaw |publisher=Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences |pages=251–260 |isbn=978-83-63760-10-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bekić |first1=Luka |date=2016 |title=Rani srednji vijek između Panonije i Jadrana: ranoslavenski keramički i ostali arheološki nalazi od 6. do 8. stoljeća |trans-title=Early medieval between Pannonia and the Adriatic: early Slavic ceramic and other archaeological finds from the sixth to eighth century |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348500715 |location=Pula |publisher=Arheološki muzej Istre |language=hr, en |pages=101, 119, 123, 138–140, 157–162, 173–174, 177–179 |isbn=978-953-8082-01-6}}</ref> Eventually, a [[dukedom (administrative division)|dukedom]] was formed, [[Duchy of Croatia]], ruled by [[Borna (duke)|Borna]], as attested by chronicles of [[Einhard]] starting in 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, [[vassal states]] of [[Francia]] at the time.{{sfn|Mužić|2007|pp=157–160}} Its neighbor to the North was [[Principality of Lower Pannonia]], at the time ruled by duke [[Ljudevit (Lower Pannonia)|Ljudevit]] who ruled the territories between the [[Drava]] and [[Sava]] rivers, centred from his fort at [[Sisak]]. This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia.{{sfn|Budak|2018|pp=178–185}}

[[Christianisation]] of Croats began in the 7th century at the time of archon [[Porga of Croatia]], initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people,{{sfn|Budak|2018|pp=144–145}} but mostly finished by the 9th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ivandija |first=Antun |title=Pokrštenje Hrvata prema najnovijim znanstvenim rezultatima |trans-title=Christianization of Croats according to the most recent scientific results |url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=64623&lang=en |journal=Bogoslovska smotra |publisher=University of Zagreb, Catholic Faculty of Theology |volume=37 |issue=3–4 |pages=440–444 |date=April 1968 |issn=0352-3101 |language=hr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Živković|first=Tibor|author-link=Tibor Živković|title=On the Baptism of the Serbs and Croats in the Time of Basil I (867–886)|journal=Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana|year=2013a|issue=1|pages=33–53|url=http://slavica-petropolitana.spbu.ru/files/2013_1/Zivkovic.pdf}}</ref> The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of [[Mislav of Croatia|Mislav]],{{sfn|Mužić|2007|pp=169–170}} or his successor [[Trpimir I of Croatia|Trpimir I]].{{sfn|Budak|2018|pp=106}} The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Radovi|publisher=HAZU|place=Zadar|date=2001|issue=43|first=Milko|last=Brković|title=Diplomatička analiza papinskih pisama druge polovice IX. stoljeća destinatarima u Hrvatskoj|trans-title=The Papal Letters of the second half of the IXth Century to addressees in Croatia|language=hr|pages=29–44|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/en/clanak/18748}}</ref>

The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke [[Branimir of Croatia|Branimir]], who received papal recognition from [[Pope John VIII]] on 7 June 879.{{sfn|Mužić|2007|p=|pp=195–198}} [[Tomislav of Croatia|Tomislav]] was the first [[king of Croatia]], noted as such in a letter of [[Pope John X]] in 925. Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions.<ref name="Posavec">{{cite journal|journal=Radovi Zavoda Za Hrvatsku Povijest|volume=30|issue=1|issn=0353-295X|pages=281–290|title=Povijesni zemljovidi i granice Hrvatske u Tomislavovo doba|trans-title= Historical maps and borders of Croatia in age of Tomislav|language=hr|first=Vladimir|last=Posavec|date=March 1998|access-date=16 October 2011|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=62779}}</ref> The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of [[Petar Krešimir IV]] (1058–1074) and [[Dmitar Zvonimir]] (1075–1089).<ref name="Margetić">{{cite journal|journal=Radovi Zavoda Za Hrvatsku Povijest|volume=29|issue=1|issn=0353-295X|pages=11–20|title=Regnum Croatiae et Dalmatiae u doba Stjepana II.|trans-title=Regnum Croatiae et Dalmatiae in age of Stjepan II|language=hr|first=Lujo|last=Margetić|date=January 1997|access-date=16 October 2011|url= http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=76963|author-link=Lujo Margetić}}</ref> When [[Stephen II of Croatia|Stjepan II]] died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Dmitar Zvonimir's brother-in-law [[Ladislaus I of Hungary]] claimed the Croatian crown. This led to a [[Battle of Gvozd Mountain|war]] and [[personal union of Croatia and Hungary|personal union with Hungary]] in 1102 under [[Coloman, King of Hungary|Coloman]].<ref name="HR-HU-Heka">{{cite journal|journal=Scrinia Slavonica|issn=1332-4853|publisher=Hrvatski institut za povijest – Podružnica za povijest Slavonije, Srijema i Baranje|title= Hrvatsko-ugarski odnosi od sredinjega vijeka do nagodbe iz 1868. s posebnim osvrtom na pitanja Slavonije|trans-title=Croatian-Hungarian relations from the Middle Ages to the Compromise of 1868, with a special survey of the Slavonian issue|language=hr|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=68144|first= Ladislav|last= Heka|date=October 2008|volume=8|issue=1|pages=152–173|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref>

=== Union with Hungary and Austria ===

{{main|Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)|Austria-Hungary}}
{{further|Croatian–Ottoman wars}}

[[File:Dragutin Weingärtner, Hrvatski sabor 1848. god.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Ban [[Josip Jelačić]] at the opening of the first modern [[Croatian Parliament]] (''Sabor''), June 5, 1848. The Croatian tricolour flag can be seen in the background.]]
For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the [[Sabor]] (parliament) and a [[Ban of Croatia|Ban]] (viceroy) appointed by the king.<ref name="Povijest-saborovanja">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=404 |title=Povijest saborovanja |trans-title=History of parliamentarism |language=hr |publisher=[[Sabor]] |access-date=18 October 2010 |archive-date=2 December 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202061135/http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=404}}</ref> This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the [[Frankopan]] and [[Šubić]] families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families.{{sfn|Font|2005|p=17}} An increasing threat of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest and a struggle against the [[Republic of Venice]] for control of coastal areas ensued. The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except the [[city-state of Dubrovnik]], which became independent. [[Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War|Ottoman conquests]] led to the 1493 [[Battle of Krbava field]] and the 1526 [[Battle of Mohács]], both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King [[Louis II of Hungary|Louis II]] died at Mohács, and in 1527, the [[Croatian Parliament met in Cetin]] and chose Ferdinand I of the [[House of Habsburg]] as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights.<ref name="Povijest-saborovanja"/>{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=|pp=422–423}}

Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories in 1538. The military territories became known as the [[Croatian Military Frontier]] and were under direct Habsburg control. Ottoman advances in Croatia continued until the 1593 [[Battle of Sisak]], the first decisive Ottoman defeat, when borders stabilised.{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=|pp=422–423}} During the [[Great Turkish War]] (1683–1698), [[Slavonia]] was regained, but western [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]], which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control.{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=|pp=422–423}} The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome. [[Dalmatia]], the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by the [[Cretan War (1645–1669)|Fifth]] and the [[Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars]].{{sfn|Lane|1973|p=409}}

The [[Croatian–Ottoman wars|Ottoman wars]] drove demographic changes. During the 16th century, Croats from western and northern [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]], [[Lika]], [[Krbava]], the area between the rivers [[Una (Sava)|Una]] and [[Kupa]], and especially from western [[Slavonia]], migrated towards [[Austria]]. Present-day [[Burgenland Croats]] are direct descendants of these settlers.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Croatian Cultural Association in Burgenland|url=http://www.hkd.at/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=102&lang=hr|language=hr|title=Povijest Gradišćanskih Hrvatov|trans-title=History of Burgenland Croats|access-date=17 October 2011|archive-date=14 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114132821/http://www.hkd.at/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=102&lang=hr}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Valentić|first=Mirko|date=30 October 1990|title=TURSKI RATOVI i HRVATSKA DIJASPORA u XVI. STOLJEĆU|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/74388|journal=Senjski Zbornik: Prilozi Za Geografiju, Etnologiju, Gospodarstvo, Povijest I Kulturu|language=hr|volume=17|issue=1|pages=45–60|issn=0582-673X}}</ref> To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in the [[Military Frontier]].

The [[Croatian Parliament]] supported [[Emperor Charles VI|King Charles III]]'s [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1713|Pragmatic Sanction]] and signed their own [[Pragmatic Sanction in 1712]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Povijest saborovanja|url=http://www.sabor.hr/hr/o-saboru/povijest-saborovanja|website=Hrvatski sabor|language=hr|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref> Subsequently, the emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of the [[Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)|Kingdom of Croatia]], and [[Queen Maria Theresa]] made significant contributions to Croatian affairs, such as introducing compulsory education.

[[File:Map of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1885).png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|The [[Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia]] was an autonomous kingdom within [[Austria-Hungary]] created in 1868 following the [[Croatian–Hungarian Settlement]].]]

Between 1797 and 1809, the [[First French Empire]] increasingly occupied the eastern [[Adriatic]] coastline and its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusan republics]], establishing the [[Illyrian Provinces]].{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=|pp=422–423}} In response, the [[Royal Navy]] [[blockade of the Adriatic Sea|blockaded the Adriatic Sea]], leading to the [[Battle of Lissa (1811)|Battle of Vis]] in 1811.{{sfn|Adkins|Adkins|2008|p=|pp=359–362}} The Illyrian provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 and absorbed by the [[Austrian Empire]] following the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815. This led to the formation of the [[Kingdom of Dalmatia]] and the restoration of the [[Croatian Littoral]] to the Kingdom of Croatia under one crown.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTC3IWC_py8C|first=Harold|last=Nicolson|title=The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812–1822|publisher=[[Grove Press]]|isbn=978-0-8021-3744-9|page=180|year=2000|access-date=17 October 2011|author-link=Harold Nicolson}}</ref> The 1830s and 1840s featured [[romantic nationalism]] that inspired the [[Croatian National Revival]], a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of [[South Slavs]] within the empire. Its primary focus was establishing a standard language as a counterweight to [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] while promoting [[Croatian literature]] and culture.<ref name="CRIS-Stančić">{{cite journal|journal=Cris: Časopis Povijesnog društva Križevci|issn=1332-2567|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=80164|first=Nikša|last=Stančić|title=Hrvatski narodni preporod – ciljevi i ostvarenja|trans-title=Croatian National Revival – goals and achievements|pages=6–17|volume=10|issue=1|date=February 2009|access-date=7 October 2011|language=hr}}</ref> During the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]], Croatia sided with Austria. Ban [[Josip Jelačić]] helped defeat the Hungarians in 1849 and ushered in a [[Germanisation]] policy.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Review of Croatian History|publisher=Croatian Institute of History|issn=1845-4380|volume=4|issue=1|date=December 2008|first=Ante|last=Čuvalo|title=Josip Jelačić – Ban of Croatia|pages=13–27|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=77559|access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref>

By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]]. The creation of a [[personal union]] between the Austrian Empire and the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] followed. The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by the [[Croatian–Hungarian Settlement]] of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/~habsweb/sourcetexts/nagodba1.htm|title=Constitution of Union between Croatia-Slavonia and Hungary|publisher=H-net.org|access-date=16 May 2010}}</ref> The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while [[Rijeka]] retained the status of [[Corpus separatum (Fiume)|''corpus separatum'']] previously introduced in 1779.<ref name="HR-HU-Heka"/>

After [[Austria-Hungary]] [[Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina|occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina]] following the [[1878 Treaty of Berlin]], the Military Frontier was abolished. The Croatian and [[Slavonian Military Frontier|Slavonian]] sectors of the Frontier returned to Croatia in 1881,{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=|pp=422–423}} under provisions of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Zbornik Pravnog Fakulteta Sveučilišta u Rijeci|issn=1330-349X|publisher=[[University of Rijeka]]|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=39787|first=Ladislav|last=Heka|title=Hrvatsko-ugarska nagodba u zrcalu tiska|language=hr|trans-title=Croatian-Hungarian compromise in light of press clips|volume=28|issue=2|date=December 2007|access-date=10 April 2012|pages=931–971}}</ref><ref name="Dubravica">{{cite journal|journal=Politička Misao|issn=0032-3241|publisher=[[University of Zagreb]], Faculty of Political Sciences|title=Političko-teritorijalna podjela i opseg civilne Hrvatske u godinama sjedinjenja s vojnom Hrvatskom 1871–1886|trans-title=Political and territorial division and scope of civilian Croatia in the period of unification with the Croatian military frontier 1871–1886|language=hr|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=38709&lang=en|first=Branko|last=Dubravica|pages=159–172|volume=38|issue=3|date=January 2002|access-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> Renewed efforts to [[reform Austria-Hungary]], entailing [[federalisation]] with Croatia as a federal unit, were stopped by [[World War I]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Max|last=Polatschek|title=Franz Ferdinand: Europas verlorene Hoffnung|language=de|isbn=978-3-85002-284-2|publisher=Amalthea|year=1989|page=231|access-date=17 October 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZu0AAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

{{clear}}

=== The World Wars and Yugoslavia ===
{{main|Creation of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Banovina of Croatia|World War II in Yugoslavia|Socialist Republic of Croatia}}

[[File:Demonstracije u Zagrebu 1918.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Mass protests in Zagreb against the unification of the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] with the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] in 1918]]
On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Parliament (''Sabor'') declared independence and decided to join the newly formed [[State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs]],<ref name="Povijest-saborovanja"/> which in turn entered into union with the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] on 4 December 1918 to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes]].<ref>{{cite book|title=World War I: encyclopedia, Volume 1|first1=Spencer|last1=Tucker|author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts|isbn=978-1-85109-420-2|page=1286|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C}}</ref> The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro.<ref name="Povijest-saborovanja"/> The [[1921 constitution]] defining the country as a [[unitary state]] and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy.

The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party—the [[Croatian Peasant Party]] (HSS) led by [[Stjepan Radić]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Scrinia Slavonica|publisher=Croatian Institute of History – Slavonia, Syrmium and Baranya history branch|issn=1332-4853|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=31497|volume=3|issue=1|date=November 2003|title=Parlamentarni izbori u Brodskom kotaru 1923. godine|language=hr|trans-title=Parliamentary Elections in the Brod District in 1932|access-date=17 October 2011|pages=452–470}}</ref>

The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the [[Yugoslav Parliament|National Assembly]] by [[People's Radical Party|NRS]] member, [[Serbs|Serbian]] nationalist politician [[Puniša Račić]] in 1928, culminating in King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|Alexander I]]'s establishment of the [[6 January Dictatorship]] in 1929.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zadru|publisher=[[Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts]]|issn=1330-0474|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=74560|pages=203–218|issue=51|date=November 2009|first=Zlatko|last=Begonja|title=Ivan Pernar o hrvatsko-srpskim odnosima nakon atentata u Beogradu 1928. godine|language=hr|trans-title=Ivan Pernar on Croatian-Serbian relations after 1928 Belgrade assassination|access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref> The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution.<ref>{{cite book|title=Yugoslavia's ruin: the bloody lessons of nationalism, a patriot's warning|first=Cvijeto|last=Job|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-1784-4|page=9|year=2002|access-date=27 October 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yH3Hz2AXonwC}}</ref> The HSS, now led by [[Vladko Maček]], continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in the [[Cvetković–Maček Agreement]] of August 1939 and the autonomous [[Banovina of Croatia]]. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.{{sfn|Klemenčič|Žagar|2004|p=|pp=121–123}}

[[File:Oslobođenje Zagreba 05.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|People of Zagreb celebrating [[Zagreb in World War II|liberation]] on 12 May 1945 by [[Croatian Partisans]]]]
In April 1941, [[Invasion of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia was occupied]] by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]]. Following the invasion, a German-Italian installed puppet state named the [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH) was established. Most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of [[Syrmia]] were incorporated into this state. Parts of Dalmatia were [[Treaties of Rome (1941)|annexed by Italy]], Hungary annexed the northern Croatian regions of [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and [[Međimurje (region)|Međimurje]].{{sfn|Klemenčič|Žagar|2004|p=|pp=153–156}} The NDH regime was led by [[Ante Pavelić]] and ultranationalist [[Ustaše]], a fringe movement in pre-war Croatia.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2001|p=337}} With German and Italian military and political support,{{sfn|Tomasevich|2001|p=272}} the regime introduced [[Nazi racial theories|racial laws]] and launched a [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|genocide campaign against Serbs]], [[History of the Jews in Croatia|Jews]], and [[Romani people in Croatia|Roma]].{{sfn|Klemenčič|Žagar|2004|p=184}} Many were imprisoned in [[Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia|concentration camps]]; the largest was the [[Jasenovac concentration camp|Jasenovac complex]].<ref name=logori>{{cite web|title=koncentracijski logori|url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/koncentracijski-logori|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref> [[Croatian Partisans|Anti-fascist Croats]] were targeted by the regime as well.{{sfn|Goldstein|1999|p=138}} Several [[Italian concentration camps|concentration camps]] (most notably the [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]], [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]] and [[Molat concentration camp|Molat]] camps) were established in Italian-occupied territories, mostly for [[Slovenes]] and Croats.<ref name=logori/> At the same time, the Yugoslav Royalist and [[Serbian nationalism|Serbian nationalist]] [[Chetniks]] pursued a [[Chetnik war crimes in World War II|genocidal campaign]] against Croats and [[Bosniaks|Muslims]],{{sfn|Klemenčič|Žagar|2004|p=184}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoare |first=Marko Attila |title=Genocide in the former Yugoslavia: a critique of left revisionism's denial (full version) |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |date=1 December 2003 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=543–563 |doi=10.1080/1462352032000149495 |s2cid=145169670 |issn=1462-3528}}</ref> aided by Italy.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2001|p=744}} Nazi German forces committed crimes and reprisals against civilians in retaliation for Partisan actions, such as in the villages of [[Massacre of villages under Kamešnica|Kamešnica]] and [[Memorial Centre Lipa Remembers|Lipa]] in 1944.<ref>{{Cite book|last= Kozlica|first=Ivan|title=Krvava Cetina|trans-title= Bloody Cetina|language =hr|year=2012|publisher=Hrvatski centar za ratne žrtve|location=Zagreb|isbn=978-953-57409-0-2|page=155}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title="Operacija Braunschweig", Klepsidra|last=Predoević|first=Petra|publisher=Udruga studenata povijesti "Malleus"|year=2007|location=Rijeka|pages=105–129}}</ref>

A [[National Liberation Movement in Croatia|resistance movement]] emerged. On 22 June 1941,<ref name="Pavličević">Dragutin Pavličević, Povijest Hrvatske, Naklada Pavičić, Zagreb, 2007. {{ISBN|978-953-6308-71-2}}, str. 441–442.</ref> the [[1st Sisak Partisan Detachment]] was formed near [[Sisak]], the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in [[German-occupied Europe|occupied Europe]].<ref name="pavlicevic-2007">{{cite book|first=Dragutin|last=Pavličević|title=Povijest Hrvatske|year=2007|publisher=Naklada Pavičić|isbn=978-953-6308-71-2|pages=441–442}}</ref> That sparked the beginning of the [[Yugoslav Partisan]] movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by [[Josip Broz Tito]].<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Večernji list]] |language=hr |url=http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/josipovic-antifasizam-je-duhovni-otac-domovinskog-rata-clanak-303250 |title=Josipović: Antifašizam je duhovni otac Domovinskog rata |trans-title=Josipović: Anti-Fascism is a Spiritual Forerunner of the Croatian War of Independence |date=22 June 2011 |first=Matea |last=Vipotnik |access-date=14 October 2011 |archive-date=17 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517085659/http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/josipovic-antifasizam-je-duhovni-otac-domovinskog-rata-clanak-303250}}</ref> In ethnic terms, Croats were the second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs.<ref name=":1" /> In per capita terms, Croats contributed proportionately to their population within Yugoslavia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoare |first=Marko Attila |year=2002 |title=Whose is the partisan movement? Serbs, Croats and the legacy of a shared resistance |journal=The Journal of Slavic Military Studies |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=30 |doi=10.1080/13518040208430537 |issn=1351-8046 |s2cid=145127681}}</ref> By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Hoare|first1=Marko Attila|author-link=Marko Attila Hoare|editor1-last=Ramet|editor1-first=Sabrina P.|editor2-last=Listhaug|editor2-first=Ola|year=2011|title=Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two |chapter=The Partisans and the Serbs|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London, England|isbn=978-0-23034-781-6 |pages=207}}</ref> The movement grew fast, and at the [[Tehran Conference]] in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Historijski Zbornik|issn=0351-2193|publisher=Društvo za hrvatsku povjesnicu|date=December 2008|volume=61|issue= 2|author=Karakaš Obradov Marica|title=Saveznički zračni napadi na Split i okolicu i djelovanje Narodne zaštite u Splitu tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata|trans-title=Allied aerial attacks on Split and its surrounding and Civil Guard activity in Split during the World War II|language=hr|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=74494|pages=323–349|access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref>

With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and airpower, and with the assistance of [[Red Army|Soviet troops]] taking part in the 1944 [[Belgrade Offensive]], the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of [[Trieste#World War II and aftermath|Italy]] and [[Carinthia (state)#From 1920 to the Present|Austria]] by May 1945. Members of the [[Croatian Armed Forces (Independent State of Croatia)|NDH armed forces]] and other Axis troops, as well as civilians, were in retreat towards Austria. Following their surrender, many were killed in the [[Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bracewell |first1=C.W. |last2=Lampe |first2=John R. |title=Croatia – World War II {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Croatia/World-War-II |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In the following years, [[Germans of Croatia|ethnic Germans]] faced [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)#Yugoslavia|persecution in Yugoslavia]], and many were interned.{{sfn|Goldstein|1999|p=158}}

The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the [[State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia]], which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament in 1945, and [[AVNOJ]]—its counterpart at the Yugoslav level.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Pro Tempore – Časopis Studenata Povijesti|publisher=Klub studenata povijesti ISHA|issn=1334-8302|first=Marko|last=Maurović|title=Josip protiv Josifa|trans-title=Josip vs. Iosif|language=hr|pages=73–83|issue=1|date=May 2004|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=81342|access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Sabor|url=http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?art=27859&sec=2867|language=hr|title=Predsjednik Sabora Luka Bebić na obilježavanju 64. obljetnice pobjede nad fašizmom i 65. obljetnice trećeg zasjedanja ZAVNOH-a u Topuskom|trans-title=Speaker of the Parliament, Luka Bebić, at celebration of the 64th anniversary of the victory over fascism and the 65th anniversary of the 3rd session of the ZAVNOH session in Topusko|date=9 May 2009|access-date=17 October 2011|archive-date=19 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119084444/http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?art=27859&sec=2867}}</ref>
[[File:Event in Zagreb in honour of Tito.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Cardinal [[Aloysius Stepinac]] with the Croatian communist leader [[Vladimir Bakarić]] at the celebration of [[International Workers' Day|May Day]], shortly before Stepinac was arrested and convicted by the communists]]
Based on the studies on [[World War II in Yugoslavia casualties|wartime and post-war casualties]] by demographer [[Vladimir Žerjavić]] and statistician [[Bogoljub Kočović]], a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territories [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|ceded from Italy]] after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Žerjavić|first=Vladimir|author-link=Vladimir Žerjavić|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/213638?lang=en|language=hr|title=Demografski i ratni gubici Hrvatske u Drugom svjetskom ratu i poraću|trans-title=Demographic and War Losses of Croatia in the World War Two and in the Postwar Period|pages=551|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=27|number=3|date=1995|location=Zagreb}}</ref> among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma.{{sfn|Žerjavić|1992|p=159}}{{sfn|Kočović|1985|p=173}} In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after the war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats.{{sfn|Žerjavić|1993b|pp=640–641}} Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population.{{sfn|Kočović|1985|p=126}}{{sfn|Geiger|2012|pp=117–118}}

[[File:Nixontito19712.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|[[Josip Broz Tito]] led [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] from 1944 to 1980; Pictured: Tito with the US president [[Richard Nixon]] in the [[White House]], 1971]]

After [[World War II]], Croatia became a [[single-party]] socialist [[Socialist Republic of Croatia|federal unit]] of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|SFR Yugoslavia]], ruled by the [[League of Communists of Croatia|Communists]], but having a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a [[Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language]] demanding equal treatment for their language.<ref name="Šute-Deklaracija">{{cite journal |last=Šute |first=Ivica |title=Deklaracija o nazivu i položaju hrvatskog književnog jezika – Građa za povijest Deklaracije |trans-title=Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language – Declaration History Articles |url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=76413&lang=en |journal=Radovi Zavoda Za Hrvatsku Povijest |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=317–318 |date=April 1999 |issn=0353-295X |language=hr}}</ref>

The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the [[Croatian Spring]] of 1971, which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership.<ref name="JL-Savka">{{cite news |newspaper=[[Jutarnji list]] |language=hr |url=http://www.jutarnji.hr/heroina-hrvatskog-proljeca/305499/ |title=Heroina Hrvatskog proljeća |trans-title=Heroine of the Croatian Spring |date=6 August 2009 |first=Vlado |last=Vurušić |access-date=14 October 2011 |archive-date=6 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806045846/http://www.jutarnji.hr/heroina-hrvatskog-proljeca/305499/}}</ref> Still, the [[1974 Yugoslav Constitution]] gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.<ref name="Rich">{{cite journal|first=Roland|last=Rich|title=Recognition of States: The Collapse of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union|journal=European Journal of International Law|year=1993|issue=1|volume=4|pages=36–65|url=http://www.ejil.org/article.php?article=1207&issue=67|access-date=18 October 2011|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.ejil.a035834|url-access=subscription}}</ref> At the same time, there was a substantial Croatian diaspora during the Cold War, which included efforts aimed at forming a government in exile.<ref name="Mišur">{{cite journal |last1= Mišur |first1= Ivo |year=2018 |title=Uloga političke emigracije iz NDH u događanjima na Bliskom istoku 1947–1964|url=https://gracanickiglasnik.ba/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pages-from-gg46-6.pdf |journal= Gračanički glasnik – časopis za kulturnu historiju |volume= XXIII |issue= 46 |pages=49–60 }}</ref>

Following Tito's death in 1980, the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated. National tension was fanned by the 1986 [[SANU Memorandum]] and the [[1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro|1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro]].{{sfn|Frucht|2005|p=433}}<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/12/world/leaders-of-a-republic-in-yugoslavia-resign.html |title=Leaders of a Republic in Yugoslavia Resign |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=12 January 1989 |access-date=7 February 2010 |archive-date=6 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106113747/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/12/world/leaders-of-a-republic-in-yugoslavia-resign.html}}</ref> In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian [[Political faction|faction]] demanding a looser federation.<ref name="Pauković-14Congress-2009">{{cite journal|first=Davor|last=Pauković|publisher=Centar za politološka istraživanja|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=55640|language=hr|title=Posljednji kongres Saveza komunista Jugoslavije: uzroci, tijek i posljedice raspada|trans-title=Last Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia: Causes, Consequences and Course of Dissolution|date=1 June 2008|journal=Časopis za Suvremenu Povijest|volume=1|issue=1|pages=21–33|issn=1847-2397|access-date=11 December 2010}}</ref> In the same year, the [[1990 Croatian parliamentary election|first multi-party elections]] were held in Croatia, while [[Franjo Tuđman]]'s win exacerbated nationalist tensions.<ref name="Independent-Tuđman-Obituary">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-franjo-tudjman-1132142.html |title=Obituary: Franjo Tudjman |first=Branka |last=Magas |date=13 December 1999 |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-date=10 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110024351/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-franjo-tudjman-1132142.html}}</ref> Some of the [[Serbs in Croatia]] left Sabor and declared autonomy of the unrecognised [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]], intent on achieving independence from Croatia.<ref name="NYTimes-Autonomy-AUG1990">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/02/world/croatia-s-serbs-declare-their-autonomy.html |first=Chuck |last=Sudetic |title=Croatia's Serbs Declare Their Autonomy |date=2 October 1990 |access-date=11 December 2010 |archive-date=12 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112065457/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/02/world/croatia-s-serbs-declare-their-autonomy.html|author-link=Chuck Sudetic}}</ref><ref name="EE-CIS-book">{{cite book |title=Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmN95fFocsMC |pages=272–278 |isbn=978-1-85743-058-5 |year=1998 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |access-date=16 December 2010}}</ref>

=== Independence ===
{{main|Breakup of Yugoslavia|Croatian War of Independence|Independence of Croatia|History of Croatia since 1995}}

As tensions rose, Croatia [[Independence of Croatia|declared independence]] on 25 June 1991. However, the full implementation of the declaration only came into effect after a [[Brioni Agreement|three-month moratorium on the decision]] on 8 October 1991.<ref name="NYTimes-Declaration-26June1991">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/26/world/2-yugoslav-states-vote-independence-to-press-demands.html |title=2 Yugoslav States Vote Independence To Press Demands |first=Chuck |last=Sudetic |date=26 June 1991 |access-date=12 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110162855/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/26/world/2-yugoslav-states-vote-independence-to-press-demands.html |archive-date=10 November 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sabor-Independence-8Oct1991">{{cite web|work=Official web site of the Croatian Parliament|publisher=Sabor|url=http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?art=20091&sec=2462|title=Ceremonial session of the Croatian Parliament on the occasion of the Day of Independence of the Republic of Croatia|date=7 October 2004|access-date=29 July 2012|archive-date=14 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314021206/http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?art=20091&sec=2462}}</ref> In the meantime, tensions escalated into [[Croatian War of Independence|overt war]] when the Serbian-controlled [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia.<ref name="NYTimes-Otkos10">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/04/world/army-rushes-to-take-a-croatian-town.html |title=Army Rushes to Take a Croatian Town |first=Chuck |last=Sudetic |date=4 November 1991 |access-date=29 July 2012 |archive-date=29 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729183641/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/04/world/army-rushes-to-take-a-croatian-town.html}}</ref>

[[File:Vukovar Memorial Cemetery – Eternal Flame, 20150429160745.jpg|thumb|left|[[National Memorial Cemetery of The Victims of Homeland War in Vukovar]], the central place of holding the [[Remembrance Day (Croatia)|National Remembrance Day]], public holiday on [[November 18]], for all the victims of the war in Croatia and the [[Vukovar massacre]], one of the symbolic and crucial events in the [[Croatian War of Independence]] [[1991]]]]

By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory.<ref name="NYTimes-Iceland">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/20/world/croatia-clashes-rise-mediators-pessimistic.html |title=Croatia Clashes Rise; Mediators Pessimistic |date=19 December 1991 |access-date=29 July 2012 |archive-date=15 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115174401/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/20/world/croatia-clashes-rise-mediators-pessimistic.html}}</ref><ref name="LATimes-OccupiedPct-1Aug91">{{cite news|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-08-01-mn-177-story.html |title=Serbian Forces Press Fight for Major Chunk of Croatia |first=Charles T. |last=Powers |date=1 August 1991 |access-date=29 July 2012 |archive-date=16 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516054837/http://articles.latimes.com/1991-08-01/news/mn-177_1_defense-force|author-link=Charles T. Powers}}</ref> Serb paramilitary groups then began a campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the occupied territories, killing thousands<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/utjecaj-srbijanske-agresije-na-stanovnistvo-hrvatske/175515.aspx |title=Utjecaj srbijanske agresije na stanovništvo Hrvatske |website=[[Index.hr]] |date=11 December 2003 |access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref> of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000-500,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes.<ref>{{cite web|title= SUMMARY OF JUDGEMENT FOR MILAN MARTIĆ|url= http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/2007/pr1162e-summary.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071215084458/http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/2007/pr1162e-summary.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date= 15 December 2007|access-date=28 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Croatia marks 25 years since war with tolerance message |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/5/croatia-marks-25-years-since-war-with-tolerance-message |website=AlJazeera |date=5 August 2020}}</ref> Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination.{{sfn|Goldstein|1999|p=233}} Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bassiouni |first1=Mahmoud Cherif |last2=Manikas |first2=Peter |title=The Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia |date=1996 |publisher=Transnational Publishers |isbn=978-1-57105-004-5 |page=86}}</ref> The [[Government of Croatia|Croatian Government]] publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy.{{sfn|Allen|1996|p=46}}

[[File:16 obljetnica vojnoredarstvene operacije Oluja 05082011 Kninska tvrdjava 155.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|[[Army of Croatia|Croatian soldiers]] raising the flag on the [[Knin fortress]] at a commemoration of the [[Operation Storm]], the Croatian military action which liberated occupied Croatian territories in [[1995]]]]

On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained [[diplomatic recognition]] by the [[European Economic Community]], followed by the United Nations.<ref name="NYTimes-Germany-23Dec91">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/24/world/slovenia-and-croatia-get-bonn-s-nod.html |title=Slovenia and Croatia Get Bonn's Nod |first=Stephen |last=Kinzer |date=24 December 1991 |access-date=29 July 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620034701/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/24/world/slovenia-and-croatia-get-bonn-s-nod.html|author-link=Stephen Kinzer}}</ref><ref name="NYT-UN-membership">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/23/world/3-ex-yugoslav-republics-are-accepted-into-un.html |title=3 Ex-Yugoslav Republics Are Accepted into U.N. |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Paul L. |last=Montgomery |date=23 May 1992 |access-date=29 July 2012 |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111013548/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/23/world/3-ex-yugoslav-republics-are-accepted-into-un.html|author-link=Paul L. Montgomery }}</ref> The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a [[Operation Storm|decisive victory]] by Croatia;<ref name="LATimes-Storm-Complete">{{cite news|newspaper=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-08-08-mn-32662-story.html |title=Croats Declare Victory, End Blitz |first=Dean E. |last=Murphy |date=8 August 1995 |access-date=18 December 2010 |archive-date=12 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012140454/http://articles.latimes.com/1995-08-08/news/mn-32662_1_serb-refugees}}</ref> the event is commemorated each year on 5 August as [[Victory Day (Croatia)|Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.total-croatia-news.com/politics/37611-thanksgiving-day|title=Officials Issue Messages for Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day|website=www.total-croatia-news.com|date=4 August 2019|language=en-gb|access-date=4 August 2019|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405210541/https://www.total-croatia-news.com/politics/37611-thanksgiving-day|url-status=dead}}</ref> Following the Croatian victory, about 200,000 Serbs from the self-proclaimed [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]] fled the region<ref name="bbc-storm"/> and hundreds of mainly elderly Serb civilians were killed in the aftermath of the military operation, often in revenge attacks. There were instances of their property being looted, seized or burned down. Approximately half have returned since then.<ref name="auto"/> Their homes were subsequently settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref>{{cite book|author=Janine Natalya Clark|year=2014|title=International Trials and Reconciliation: Assessing the Impact of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1-31797-475-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=373cAwAAQBAJ|page=28}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2024}} The [[Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia (1995–1998)|remaining occupied areas]] were restored to Croatia following the [[Erdut Agreement]] of November 1995, concluding with the [[United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium|UNTAES]] mission in January 1998.<ref name="NYTimes-UNTAES-16Jan98">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/16/world/an-ethnic-morass-is-returned-to-croatia.html |title=An Ethnic Morass Is Returned to Croatia |first=Chris |last=Hedges |date=16 January 1998 |access-date=18 December 2010 |archive-date=18 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518201803/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/16/world/an-ethnic-morass-is-returned-to-croatia.html|author-link=Chris Hedges}}</ref> Most sources number the war deaths at around 20,000.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3095774.stm|title=Presidents apologise over Croatian war |publisher=BBC|work=BBC News|date=September 10, 2003|access-date=February 7, 2010}}</ref><ref name="setimes1">{{cite web|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/11/20/feature-01|title=Serbia to respond to Croatian genocide charges with countersuit at ICJ|work=SETimes.com|publisher=[[Southeast European Times]]|date=November 20, 2008|access-date=February 7, 2010}}</ref><ref name="tehrantimes1">{{cite news|url=http://www.tehrantimes.com/index_View.asp?code=182811|title=UN to hear Croatia genocide claim against Serbia|newspaper=Tehran Times|date=November 19, 2008|access-date=February 7, 2010}}</ref>

After the end of the war, Croatia faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction, the return of refugees, establishing democracy, protecting human rights, and general social and economic development.

The 2000s were characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and the inefficiency of public administration.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Puljiz|first1=Vlado|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=26RVYkUkBXAC&q=hrvatska+nakon+2000&pg=PA43|title=Socijalna politika Hrvatske|last2=Bežovan|first2=Gojko|last3=Matković|first3=Teo|last4=Šućur|first4=dr Zoran|last5=Zrinščak|first5=Siniša|publisher=Pravni fakultet u Zagrebu|year=2008|isbn=978-953-97320-9-5|location=Zagreb|pages=43–52|language=hr}}</ref> In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers.<ref>{{cite web|title=22 December – Christmas Constitution – the first Constitution of the independent Republic of Croatia|url=https://www.sabor.hr/en/about-parliament/history/important-dates/22-december-christmas-constitution-first-constitution|website=sabor.hr|access-date=27 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History and Development of Croatian Constitutional Judicature – Constitutional Court of the Republic of Croatia |url=https://www.usud.hr/en/history-and-development-croatian-constitutional-judicature#9 |website=www.usud.hr}}</ref>

Croatia joined the [[Partnership for Peace]] on 25 May 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/partnerstvo-za-mir|title=Partnerstvo za mir – Hrvatska enciklopedija|website=www.enciklopedija.hr}}</ref> and became a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] on 30 November 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mvep.hr/hr/vanjska-politika/multilateralni-odnosi-staro-ijvhj/svjetska-trgovinska-organizacija-(wto)/|title=MVEP • Svjetska trgovinska organizacija (WTO)|website=www.mvep.hr}}</ref> On 29 October 2001, Croatia signed a [[Stabilisation and Association Agreement]] with the [[European Union]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Kronologija: Težak put od priznanja do kucanja na vrata EU – Jutarnji List|url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/arhiva/kronologija-tezak-put-od-priznanja-do-kucanja-na-vrata-eu/3756672/|date=2 October 2006|website=www.jutarnji.hr|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref> submitted a formal application for the EU membership in 2003,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uprava.gov.hr/kada-je-i-kome-republika-hrvatska-podnijela-zahtjev-za-clanstvo-u-europskoj-uniji/13976|title=Kada je i kome Republika Hrvatska podnijela zahtjev za članstvo u Europskoj uniji?|website=uprava.gov.hr}}</ref> was given the status of a candidate country in 2004,<ref>{{cite web|title=Kako je izgledao put Republike Hrvatske ka punopravnom članstvu u Europskoj uniji?|url=https://uprava.gov.hr/drzavni-strucni-ispit-789/primjeri-pitanja-i-odgovora-za-srednju-strucnu-spremu/osnove-sustava-europske-unije/kako-je-izgledao-put-republike-hrvatske-ka-punopravnom-clanstvu-u-europskoj-uniji/12417|website=uprava.gov.hr|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref> and began [[2013 enlargement of the European Union#Negotiation progress|accession negotiations]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Evo kako je izgledao hrvatski put prema EU!|url=https://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/evo-kako-je-izgledao-hrvatski-put-prema-eu---292731.html|website=Dnevnik.hr|language=hr|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref> Although the Croatian economy had enjoyed a significant boom in the early 2000s, the financial crisis in 2008 forced the government to cut spending, thus provoking a public outcry.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ivo |last=Goldstein |author-link=Ivo Goldstein |title=Povijest Hrvatske 1945–2011 |version=3. svezak |publisher=EPH Media d.o.o.}}</ref>

Croatia served on the [[United Nations Security Council]] in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008.<ref name="MVPEI-UNSC-2008-2009">{{cite web |title=Membership of the Republic of Croatia in the UN Security Council 2008–2009 |url=http://www.mvpei.hr/mvp.asp?pcpid=2531 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130107231744/http://www.mvep.hr/mvp.asp?pcpid=2531 |archive-date=7 January 2013 |access-date=24 September 2011 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration (Croatia)}}</ref> On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined [[NATO]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Hrvatska postala članica NATO saveza|url=https://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/hrvatska-postala-punopravna-clanica-nato-saveza.html|website=Dnevnik.hr|language=hr|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

[[File:Tratado de Lisboa 13 12 2007 (081).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Croatia became the 28th EU member country on 1 July 2013.]]

A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation. The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections. On 28 October 2011 [[List of MPs elected in the Croatian parliamentary election, 2007|MPs]] voted to dissolve Parliament and the protests gradually subsided. [[President of Croatia|President]] Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution of [[Croatian Parliament|Sabor]] on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/eastern-approaches/2011/03/06/et-tu-zagreb|title=Et tu, Zagreb?|newspaper=The Economist|date=6 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/ovo-su-bili-najzanimljiviji-trenuci-u-saboru.html |title=Pogledajte sve snimke sa suđenja Sanaderu |publisher=Dnevnik.hr |date=2011-10-28 |access-date=2011-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://odluka2011.dnevnik.hr/clanak/vijesti/predsjednik-josipovic-raspisao-izbore.html |title=Predsjednik Josipović raspisao izbore! |publisher=Odluka2011.dnevnik.hr |date=2011-10-31 |access-date=2011-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203150728/http://odluka2011.dnevnik.hr/clanak/vijesti/predsjednik-josipovic-raspisao-izbore.html |archive-date=2011-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations.<ref name="EU-Negotiations-Completed">{{cite web |date=30 June 2011 |title=EU closes accession negotiations with Croatia |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/11/824&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en |access-date=24 September 2011 |publisher=[[European Commission]]}}</ref> The country signed the [[Treaty of Accession 2011|Accession Treaty]] on 9 December 2011 and held a [[2012 Croatian European Union membership referendum|referendum]] on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership.<ref name="EU-Accession-Treaty">{{cite web |date=9 December 2011 |title=Croatia signs EU accession treaty |url=http://europa.eu/news/external-relations/2011/03/20110302_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123185048/http://europa.eu/news/external-relations/2011/03/20110302_en.htm |archive-date=23 January 2012 |access-date=12 December 2011 |publisher=[[European Union]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16670298|title=Croatia voters back EU membership|work=BBC News|date=1 June 2018}}</ref> [[Croatia joined the European Union]] on 1 July 2013.

Croatia was affected by the [[2015 European migrant crisis]] when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/914376.HuB-SpecialEditiononRefugeeCrisis-100_January2017.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/914376.HuB-SpecialEditiononRefugeeCrisis-100_January2017.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Šenada Šelo Šabić, Croatia's response to the refugee crisis, European Expression, Issue 100, 2016}}</ref>

On 19 October 2016, [[Andrej Plenković]] began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrej Plenković – O meni |url=https://www.andrejplenkovic.hr/page.php?id=1 |access-date=17 December 2020 |website=www.andrejplenkovic.hr}}</ref> The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, elected [[Zoran Milanović]] as president.<ref>{{cite web |title=Održana svečanost prisege predsjednika Republike Hrvatske Zorana Milanovića |url=https://www.predsjednik.hr/vijesti/svecanost-prisege/ |access-date=23 January 2021 |website=Predsjednik Republike Hrvatske – Zoran Milanović |language=hr}}</ref>

On 25 January 2022, the [[OECD]] Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. Throughout the accession process, Croatia was to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade. In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected. Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve.<ref>{{cite web|title=The OECD and South East Europe|url=https://www.oecd.org/south-east-europe/economies/see-croatia.htm|website=OECD.org|access-date=27 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=OECD membership means benefits for citizens, higher living standard|url=https://mvep.gov.hr/press-22794/oecd-membership-means-benefits-for-citizens-higher-living-standard/253882|website=Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs|access-date=27 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Croatia's accession to the OECD is progressing faster than expected|url=https://mvep.gov.hr/press-22794/croatia-s-accession-to-the-oecd-is-progressing-faster-than-expected/257332|website=Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs|access-date=27 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=OECD još jedan instrument za unaprjeđenje reformskih procesa, članstvo će nas učiniti još boljom i kvalitetnijom zemljom|url=https://vlada.gov.hr/vijesti/oecd-jos-jedan-instrument-za-unaprjedjenje-reformskih-procesa-clanstvo-ce-nas-uciniti-jos-boljom-i-kvalitetnijom-zemljom/38169|website=GOV.hr|language=hr|access-date=27 June 2023}}</ref>

On 1 January 2023, Croatia adopted the [[euro]] as its official currency, replacing the [[Croatian kuna|kuna]], and became the 20th [[Eurozone]] member. On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-free [[Schengen Area]], thus marking its full EU integration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Euro and Schengen: Croatia joins the Euro and Schengen areas |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_7907 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=European Commission}}</ref>