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Data broker
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=== Services === Information brokering has been described as the "business of buying and selling information as a commodity".<ref>{{cite report|url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/2663/SWP-3963-37617980-CISL-9708.pdf?sequence=1|title=Information Brokering on the World Wide Web|first1= Stephane|last1= Bressan |first2= Thomas |last2=Lee|date=June 1997|quote=Accepted at the WebNet 97 World Conference.|publisher=[[Sloan School of Management]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]}}</ref> Information brokers have been defined by the (US) [[Federal Trade Commission]] as "companies that collect information, including personal information about consumers, from a wide variety of sources for the purpose of reselling such information to their customers for various purposes, including verifying an individual's identity, differentiating records, [[marketing]] products, and preventing [[financial fraud]]".<ref name=ste/> [[Gartner]] defines an information broker as "a business that aggregates information from a variety of sources; processes it to enrich, cleanse or analyze it; and licenses it to other organizations". It states that data is "licensed for particular or limited uses" rather than sold to a client.<ref name=gartner>{{cite web | title=Definition of Data Broker | website=Gartner | url=https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/data-broker | access-date=12 March 2021}}</ref> Information brokers (IBs) collect and collate data concerning myriad topics, ranging from the daily communications of an individual to more specialized data such as [[trademark|product registrations]],<ref>{{Cite book | title=The Data Revolution | last=Kitchin | first=Rob | publisher=Sage Publications Ltd. (UK) | year=2014 }}</ref> [[patent]]s and [[copyright]] data,<ref name=campana>{{cite web | last=Campana | first=Natalia | title=What does an Information Broker do? | website=Freelancer Blog | date=6 February 2020 | url=https://www.freelancermap.com/blog/what-does-information-broker-do/ | access-date=12 March 2021}}</ref> mostly from publicly available sources, usually obtained from [[online database]]s. They may also provide various other services, such as analysing the data and writing reports on them; creating [[database]]s for clients; or updating clients whenever new information on a specific topic or person. Clients use data brokers to save themselves time and money, as the brokers are trained in the skills needed to retrieve such information effectively and efficiently.<ref name=inc/> Information brokers are [[secondary research]]ers, who find information on a variety of subjects, including companies (often competitors<ref name=cleverism/>), markets, people, and products. Their role includes analysis and synthesis of the data they find,<ref name=specialists>{{cite web | title=Research Specialists | website=The Association of Independent Information Professionals (AIIP) | url=https://www.aiip.org/research-specialists | access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref> Brokers may find everything else they can about an individual on the Internet, and [[Aggregate data|aggregate that data]] with information from a variety of other sources.<ref name=clearcode/> Information brokers sometimes specialise in a specific area, such as [[market research]], [[statistics]], or [[scientific data]].<ref name=cleverism/> Clients of information brokers come from a wide range of industries and professions, including manufacturing, financial institutions, [[political parties]], government agencies and [[historian]]s.<ref name=fairy>{{cite web | title=All About information brokers: what they do and how to become one | website=Fairygodboss | url=https://fairygodboss.com/career-topics/information-brokers | access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref> [[Non-profit organization]]s might benefit from information which helps them to apply for [[grant funding]], and [[real estate agent]]s often use IBs to undertake land [[title search]]es.<ref name=cleverism/><ref>{{cite web | title=Information Brokers | website=NSW Land Registry Services | url=https://www.nswlrs.com.au/Information-Brokers | access-date=12 March 2021}}</ref> [[Advertising]], [[fraud detection]] and [[risk mitigation]] are three common reasons for using data brokers,<ref name=clearcode/> and these are the three broad categories defined by the Federal Trade Commission.<ref name=ste>{{cite web | title=Information Brokers | website=The Social Engineering Framework | date=4 December 2020 | url=https://www.social-engineer.org/framework/general-discussion/categories-social-engineers/information-brokers/ | access-date=12 March 2021}}</ref> Information brokers need to screen their clients carefully to avoid criminals obtaining data on individuals for nefarious purposes: US broking companies [[Lexis-Nexis]] and [[ChoicePoint]] have both been duped by phoney clients, leading in one case to [[identity theft]] on a large scale.<ref name=ste/> Data may be harvested from various sources, including [[census]], [[Mail forwarding|change of address]], [[motor vehicle]]-related records, [[User-generated content|user-contributed material]] and [[Social networking service|social networking sites]],<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.propublica.org/article/yes-companies-are-harvesting-and-selling-your-social-media-profiles | title=Yes, Companies Are Harvesting β and Selling β Your Facebook Profile | last=Beckette | first=Lois | date=9 November 2012 | access-date=17 August 2014}}</ref> media and court reports, [[voter registration]] lists, consumer purchase histories, [[Most wanted list|most-wanted lists]] and [[Interpol Terrorism Watch List|terrorist watch list]]s, [[payment card|bank card transaction records]], health care authorities, and [[Web browsing history|Web browsing histories]].<ref name="worldprivacyforum.org">{{Cite web | url=http://www.worldprivacyforum.org/2013/12/testimony-what-information-do-data-brokers-have-on-consumers/ | title=Congressional Testimony: What Information Do Data Brokers Have on Consumers? | date=18 December 2013 }}</ref> IBs may also purchase information from other companies (such as a [[credit card]] company).<ref name=clearcode/> The information collected may include name, address, [[social security number]], [[driver's licence]] number and other such identifying information, as well as occupation, property ownership, income, etc. Advertising companies are most often only interested in profiles and categories rather than personal information about an individual.<ref name="clearcode" /> Information from property records, tax filings, etc. may also be available via "people-search" [[Telephone directory|whitepage]] sites, either for a small fee or no cost. These websites can thereby have implications for [[stalking]], [[harassment]], and [[domestic violence]].<ref name=":2" /> The data are aggregated to create individual profiles, often made up of thousands of pieces of information, such as a person's age, race, [[gender]], height, weight, [[marital status]], religious affiliation, political affiliation, occupation, household income, [[net worth]], home ownership status, investment habits, product preferences and health-related interests.<ref name="Government of the United States" /> Brokers then sell the profiles to other organizations that use them mainly to target [[Targeted advertising|advertising]] and [[Target market|marketing]] towards specific groups,<ref name="fairy" /> or to verify a person's identity including for purposes of [[Identity fraud|fraud]] detection, and to sell to individuals and organizations so they can research people for various reasons.<ref name="Government of the United States">{{Cite web | url=http://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/data-brokers-call-transparency-accountability-report-federal-trade-commission-may-2014/140527databrokerreport.pdf | title=Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability | date=May 2014 | access-date=13 August 2014 | website=Federal Trade Commission | publisher=Government of the United States }}</ref> Some datasets may also include geolocation data and is included in marketing resources from [[Acxiom]]. [[Experian]] and [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] also advertise location-based marketing services.<ref name=":2">{{Cite magazine |last=Sherman |first=Justin |title=Data Brokers Know Where You Areβand Want to Sell That Intel |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/opinion-data-brokers-know-where-you-are-and-want-to-sell-that-intel/ |access-date=15 April 2022 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> Many brokers work independently, while others are employees of large companies such as [[LexisNexis]] or [[ProQuest]].<ref name=fairy/>
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