Editing Demon (section)

== History ==
From an [[Anthropology|anthropological]] perspective, demons result from human fear of the unknown.<ref name="auto">Hutter, M., Görg, M., Kollmann, B., Haustein, J., Koch, G., Streib, H., Veltri, G., Dan, J., & Krawietz, B. (2011). Demons and Spirits. In Religion Past and Present Online. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_COM_03364</ref> Forces of nature and foreigners may be portrayed as demons if they are perceived as hostile or dangerous; an evil demon might be a [[Psychological projection|projection]] onto unknown entities perceived as potentially dangerous.<ref name="auto"/> Thus, unkown causes of death or illness are [[Anthropomorphization|anthropomorphized]] into rational agents with evil intentions and then giving raise to the notion of a demon.<ref name="auto"/> Likewise, people outside one's own social group may be blamed for accidents and unexplained causes of harm, leading to a demonization of said people.<ref name="auto"/> Then, the imagined cause of said evil is integrated into one's prevailing belief-system.<ref name="auto"/>

=== Ancient Egypt ===
[[File:Ram-headed demon.jpg|thumb|upright|Ram-headed demon. The hands probably outstretch to hold two snakes. From a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings, Thebes, Egypt. End of the 18th Dynasty, around 1325 BCE]]
The Ancient [[Egyptian language]] lacks a term for the modern English ''demon'',{{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=2}}<ref name="BhayroRider2017">{{harvnb|Bhayro|Rider|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xq28DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53]}}.</ref> since both deities and lesser spirits can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans {{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=3}} By that, both share some resemblance to the Greek {{Lang|grc-latn|daimon}}. However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink.<ref name="BhayroRider2017" /> Demons in this culture appeared to be subordinative and related to a specific deity, yet they may have occasionally acted independently of the divine will. The existence of demons can be related to the realm of chaos, beyond the created world.{{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=2}} The role of demons in relation to the human world remains ambivalent and largely depends on context.

Ancient Egyptian demons can be divided into two classes: "guardians" and "wanderers".{{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=3}}{{sfn|Bhayro|Rider |2017|p=55}} "Guardians" are tied to a specific place; their demonic activity is topographically defined and their function can be benevolent towards those who have the secret knowledge to face them.{{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=4}} Demons protecting the underworld may prevent human souls from entering paradise. Only by knowing the right charms is the deceased able to enter the ''Halls of Osiris''.{{sfn|Greenbaum|2015|p=120}} Here, the aggressive nature of the guardian demons is motivated by the need to protect their abodes and not by their evil essence. Accordingly, demons guarded sacred places or the gates to the netherworld. During the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]] and [[Roman period]], the guardians shifted towards the role of [[genius loci]] and they were the focus of local and private cults.

The "wanderers" are associated with possession, mental illness, death and plagues. Many of them serve as executioners for the major deities, such as [[Ra]] or [[Osiris]], when ordered to punish humans on earth or in the netherworld.{{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=4}} Wanderers can also be agents of chaos, arising from the world beyond creation to bring about misfortune and suffering without any divine instructions, led only by evil motivations. The influences of the wanderers can be warded off and kept at the borders of the human world by the use of magic, but they can never be destroyed. A sub-category of "wanderers" are nightmare demons, which were believed to cause nightmares by entering a human body.{{sfn|Lucarelli|2010|p=2}}

=== Mesopotamia ===
{{Further|Ancient Mesopotamian underworld#Demons}}
[[File:Dumuzi aux enfers.jpg|thumb|left|Ancient Sumerian [[cylinder seal]] impression showing the god [[Dumuzid the Shepherd|Dumuzid]] being tortured in the [[Kur|Underworld]] by ''[[gallu|galla]]'' demons]]
[[Mesopotamia]]n demonology had a strong influence on later [[Judaism|Hebrew]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] concepts of demons,<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 92">Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 92</ref> with ''[[shedu]]'' from [[Chaldea]]n mythology being an example.<ref name="JE-shedim">{{harvnb|Hirsch|Gottheil|Kohler|Broydé|1906}}.</ref> The demons of Mesopotamia were generally hostile spirits of lesser power than a deity.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 92"/> Since both nature and culture were in constant change, neither were considered part of a divine cosmos.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 88">Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 88</ref> According to the Babylonian creation epic ''[[Enūma Eliš]]'', both gods and demons are the children of [[Tiamat]], the goddess of [[Chaos (cosmogony)|primordial chaos]].<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 88-89</ref> The demons were engendered by Tiamat as an act of revenge in reaction to the gods slaying her primordial partner [[Abzu]].<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 88"/> In the Babylonian tale of the Great Flood, since the gods promised to never flood humanity again, the demoness Lamaštu was installed instead and given the task of killing humans in order to avoid excessive multiplication.<ref name="Maul, S. 2006">Maul, S. (., Jansen-Winkeln, K. (., Niehr, H. (., Macuch, M. (., & Johnston, S. I. (. (2006). Demons. In Brill's New Pauly Online. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e309270</ref>

Some demons were the evil spirits of those who died in misery, while other demons were nature demons causing harm by carrying plagues and nightmares, and causing headaches and storms.<ref name="Maul, S. 2006"/><ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 92"/> People could protect themselves from demons by wearing amulets, using magic, or seeking refuge amongst another demon or deity.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 92"/><ref name="Maul, S. 2006"/> On an ontological level, in early Semitic history, deities and demons often shed into another, as the distinction was of no importance for the believer.<ref>Introduction: 
Angels and Their Religious and 
Cosmological Contexts p. 17</ref>

The [[Kur|underworld]] was home to many demonic beings,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=180}} sometimes referred to as the "offspring of ''arali''".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=180}} These demons ascend from the underworld and terrorize mortals.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=180}} One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known as ''[[Gallu|galla]]'';{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=85}} their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=85}} They are frequently referenced in magical texts,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=85–86}} and some texts describe them as being seven in number.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=85–86}} Several extant poems describe the ''galla'' dragging the god [[Dumuzid]] into the underworld.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=86}} Like many other Mesopotamian demons ''galla'' could also fulfill a protective role.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=86}} In a hymn from King [[Gudea]] of [[Lagash]] ({{circa}} 2144 – 2124 BCE), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the great ''galla'' of [[Girsu]]".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=86}}

=== Ancient Zoroastrianism ===
[[File:Arzhang (The Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp).png|thumb|upright|[[Arzhang Div]] (The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp). The demon is inspired by ancient Persian beliefs.<ref>Doostkhah, Jalil. "Az and Niyaz, Two Powerful and Haughty Demons in Persian Mythology and Epics." Sydney Studies in Religion (1998).</ref>]]
[[File:Rostam carried by Akwan-Diwa (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Akvan Div]] (The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp)]]
{{Main|Daeva}}
The [[Zorastrianism|Zoroastrian]] concept of demons (''[[Daeva]]'', later ''{{Lang|pal-latn|dīv}}'')<ref>Eduljee, K. E. "Zoroastrian Heritage." On-line at: http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism (2014).</ref> had strong influence on the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, especially [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. By elevating [[Ahura Mazda]] to the one supreme God, the founder [[Zoroaster]] relegated the daevas to demons.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 104">Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 104</ref> Emphasizing [[free-will]], Zoroaster taught that demons became evil by their own volition in rejecting truth over falsehood.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 104"/>  At a later stage, [[Mazdaism]] makes [[Ahriman]], the principle of Evil (i.e. the Devil), the creator of demons and leader of daevas.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 105</ref>

The battle between the hosts of deities against evil demons ({{Lang|pal-latn|dīv}} and {{Lang|pal-latn|druz}}) are described in the [[Bundahishn]].<ref>Shaked, Shaul. The Bundahisn: The Zoroastrian Book of Creation. Oxford University Press, 2020. p. xviii</ref> Humankind lives in a world between the good powers of God (Ahura Mazda) and the Devil (Ahriman) and suffers corruption through defection of humankind. Therefore, Zorastrianism proposes a threefold nature for humans: divine, animalistic, and demonic.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 115">Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 115</ref> As such, humans are obligated to keep fighting the demonic traits.<ref name="Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1987. p. 115"/> After death, people must cross the [[Chinvat Bridge]] to enter paradise. However, those who have chosen evil in their life will fall into the pit of hell. In hell, the damned are tormented by the demons.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 119</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uspf6eDDvjAC |title=The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research |date=1993 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-1144-6}}</ref>

In the [[Avesta|Younger Avesta]], demons (daēuua) cause deseases and death.<ref name="Maul, S. 2006"/> By abiding to ritual purification and recitation of sacred prayers, demons can be warded off and kept at bay.<ref name="Maul, S. 2006"/>

=== Apocalyptic period and early Christianity ===
The concept of demons as servants of the Devil entered the [[Christianity|Christian tradition]] via [[Post-exilic|Post-exilic Judaism]].<ref>Van der Toorn, Karel, Bob Becking, and Pieter Willem van der Horst, eds. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999. p. 236</ref> Inspired by Zoroastrian dualistic cosmology,<ref>Van der Toorn, Karel, Bob Becking, and Pieter Willem van der Horst, eds. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999.p. 238</ref> the non-Jewish deities were demonized, as evident from [[Intertestamental period|intertestamental writings]]. The [[apocalyptic literature]] then builds the foundation for the authors of the Gospels in first-century [[Palestine]].<ref>Wright, A. T. (2016). The Demonology of 1 Enoch and the New Testament Gospels. Enoch and the Synoptic Gospels: Reminiscences, Allusions, Intertextuality, 216.</ref>

In antiquity, belief in demonic agents of misfortune were widespread.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 28</ref> The early Christian community took it for granted that people outside the Judeo-Christian community were worshipping demons.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 24</ref> [[Conversion to Christianity]] meant renunciation of the demons by the bearers of the [[Holy Spirit]].<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 31-32</ref>

By the end of the sixth century, the [[Mediterranean |Mediterranean Christian society]] widely considered themselves to be unequivocally Christian, with an exception to Jews, the last record of worshipping another pre-Christian deity being in 570s.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 35</ref>

=== Medieval Christian Europe ===
Magical rites, charms, and beliefs in spiritual entities were prominent in pre-Christian Europe.<ref>Scribner, Robert W. "The Reformation, popular magic, and the" Disenchantment of the World"." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23.3 (1993): 480-481.</ref> While the Church officially declared such beliefs as ''false'',<ref name="Scribner, Robert W 1993">Scribner, Robert W. "The Reformation, popular magic, and the" Disenchantment of the World"." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23.3 (1993): 481.</ref> the persistance of such beliefs among the wider populations led Christian monks to assimilate Christian with non-Christian rites.<ref name="Scribner, Robert W 1993"/> In order to do so, non-Christian symbols and pagan deities have been substituted with [[Jesus Christ]].<ref name="Scribner, Robert W 1993"/><ref>Cameron, Malcolm L. "Anglo-Saxon medicine and magic." Anglo-Saxon England 17 (1988): 214.</ref> To sanction the invocation of non-Christian supernatural powers, Christian missionaries, such as [[John Cassian]] in the fifth century,<ref name="Scribner, Robert W 1993"/> declared the pagan gods to be demons, servants of [[Lucifer]], who bring disorder to the world.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 24</ref> Many pagan nature spirits like [[Dwarf (folklore)|dwarfs]] and [[Elf|elves]] thus became seen as demons, servants of the supreme Devil. A difference was made between [[monster]]s and demons. The monsters, regarded as distorted humans, probably without souls, were created so that people might be grateful to God that they did not suffer in such a state; they ranked above demons in existence and still claimed a small degree of beauty and goodness as they had not turned away from God.{{sfn|Russell|1986|p=79}}

In Medieval Christianity, demons and spirits were generally considered to be fallen angels. Morally ambivalent nature spirits, such as [[fairy|fairies]] from Irish and Scandinavian [[folklore|folktales]] were often explained as angels who remained neutral during the [[War in Heaven|war of heaven]].<ref>Mack, C. K., Mack, D. (1998). A Field Guide to Demons, Fairies, Fallen Angels, and Other Subversive Spirits. USA: Arcade Pub. p. xxiii</ref><ref name="Wilde, J. F. E. 1888 p. 89">Wilde, J. F. E. (1888). Ancient Legends, mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland: With Sketches of the Irish Past. To which is Appended a Chaper on "The Ancient Race of Ireland". USA: Ticknor and Company. p. 89</ref> They became spirits of the place they fell into when banished to earth.<ref name="Wilde, J. F. E. 1888 p. 89"/> Although considered neutral spirits earlier, later [[Protestantism|Protestant thinkers]] increasingly associated them with Satan and considered them to be demons.<ref>Oldridge, Darren. "Fairies and the Devil in early modern England." The Seventeenth Century 31.1 (2016): 1-15.</ref>

=== Islamic culture in the Middle Ages ===
{{See also|Div (mythology)|Marid|Ifrit}}
[[File:Imam Ali and the Jinn.jpg|thumb|[[Imam Ali|Ali]] slaying demons with his sword [[Zulfiqar]] in a Persian manuscript. As evident from the poetry of Sanā'ī Ghaznavī, the sword is believed to be made from fire (آتش), able to kill not only a body but also a soul.<ref>Bakr, Sarmad Mohammad. "The Structural Level in the Sufi Poetry."</ref>]]
In Islamic culture, [[Div (demon)|demons]] ({{Lang|pes-latn|dīv}}) share many anthropomorphic attributes with the Arabian [[jinn]].<ref>Weinstock, Jeffrey Andrew. The Ashgate encyclopedia of literary and cinematic monsters. Routledge, 2016. chapter: Div</ref><ref name=Abedinifard-etal-2021>{{cite book |title=Persian Literature as World Literature |series=Literatures as World Literature |place=USA |editor1=Abedinifard, Mostafa |editor2=Azadibougar, Omid |editor3=Vafa, Amirhossein |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2021 |isbn=978-1501354205 |pages=40–43 |postscript=,}} {{isbn|9781501354205}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|page= 37}} Like the jinn from Islamic traditions, they can enter sexual relationships with humans and sire offspring.<ref name="The Good p. 24"/> Nonetheless, demons differ from jinn as they are perceived as malign creatures.<ref name="The Good p. 24">The Good, the Bad and the Beautiful: The Survival of Ancient Iranian Ethical Concepts in Persian Popular Narratives of the Islamic Period p. 24</ref> Within context of the [[Islam]]ic belief system, demons are considered to be yet another creature of [[God in Islam|God]], rather than independent parts of the world,<ref>Friedl, E. (2020). Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, Saints, People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86</ref><ref name="Sinai, Nicolai 2023">Sinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=452}} as evident from [[Abu Ali Bal'ami]]'s interpretation of [[Tarikh al-Tabari]]<ref name=Abedinifard-etal-2021/>{{rp|style=ama|page=40}} and the [[Süleymanname]] (written at the time of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]).<ref>ÇAKIN, Mehmet Burak. "SÜLEYMÂN-NÂME'DE MİTOLOJİK BİR UNSUR OLARAK DÎVLER." Turkish Studies-Language and Literature 14.3 (2019): 1137-1158.</ref> 

''Dīv'' also appear in [[Manichaeism|Manichaeistic writings]] as the original inhabitants of the world of darkness.<ref name="iranicaonline1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/manicheism-pandaemonium|title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica|access-date=2019-04-27|archive-date=2019-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427124415/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/manicheism-pandaemonium|url-status=live}}</ref> Before the demons attacked the realm of light, they have been in constant battle and sexual intercourse against each other.<ref name="iranicaonline1"/> It is only in the realm of darkness demons are described in their physical form. After their assault on the world above, they have been overcome by the Living Spirit, and imprisoned in the structure of the world.<ref name="iranicaonline1"/> From that point onwards, they impact human's ethical life, and appear as personified ethical qualities, mostly greed, envy, grief, and wrath (desire for destruction).<ref name="iranicaonline1"/> [[Ibn al-Jawzi]], describes these demons (''[[ifrit|ʿafārīt]]''), in his {{Lang|ar-latn|Talbīs Iblīs}} ({{Gloss|devils' delusion}}), as components of the Devil (or ''Darkness'') waging war against God (or ''Light''), composed of angels.<ref>David S. Margoliouth;''The Devil's Delusion by Ibn al-Jawzi'', 1935, Bd. 1, chapter: Account of the way wherein he deludes the Dualists.</ref> Such demons also frequently appear throughout Islamic literature as personification of human vices. The protagonist of these stories must overcome the demons, as a symbol for their own animalistic nature, in order to heed his rational inclination and achieve salvation in paradisical bliss.<ref name="Barry, M. A. 1535 p. 361-363">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 361-363</ref><ref>Davaran, Fereshteh. Continuity in Iranian identity: Resilience of a cultural heritage. Routledge, 2010. pp. 207-208</ref>

Demons are believed to be vanquished by sacred symbols. The content of the symbol depends on the prevailing religion of the culture. Among Turks, the ''[[basmalah]]'' ("invocation of the name of Allah") is used to ward off demons,<ref>Zhanar, Abdibek, et al. "The Problems of the Mythological Personages in the Ancient Turkic Literature." Asian Social Science 11.7 (2015): 341.</ref> while among Armenians, the symbol of the cross is utilized.<ref name="Armenian"/> Common features of these Middle Eastern demons are their immortality and pernicious nature, they can turn invisible, and can be enslaved when pierced by a silver needle.<ref name="Armenian">{{cite journal |title=Armenian Demonology: A Critical Overview |author=Asatrian, Garnik |journal=Iran and the Caucasus |volume=17 |number=1 |pages=9–25 |year=2013 |publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/1573384X-20130103  | issn = 1573-384X}}</ref> Demons are believed to be mostly active at night and a bad smell in the air or sudden change in temperature would announce their presence.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/div | title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> It is generally accepted that demons can be subjugated as they are said to be enslaved by legendary heroes ([[Solomon in Islam|Solomon]] in the Quran and [[Jamshid]] in Persian legends).<ref>{{cite book |first1=Eva |last1=Orthmann |first2=Anna |last2=Kollatz |title=The Ceremonial of Audience: Transcultural approaches |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |date=2019-11-11 |isbn=978-3-847-00887-3 |page=155}}</ref> Due to their reluctant nature, even enslaved, they do always the opposite of what has been commanded.<ref name="The Good p. 24"/>  In some tales, supernatural powers are attributed to them, such as causing sickness, mental illnesses, or even turn humans to stone.<ref>Pedram Khosronejad The People of the Air Healing and Spirit Possession in South of Iran in: Shamanism and Healing Rituals in Contemporary Islam and Sufism, T.Zarcone (ed.) 2011, I.B.Tauris</ref>

=== European occultism and Renaissance magic ===
{{See also|Jinn|Daimon}}
Under influence of [[Islamic philosophy]], [[occultism|Medieval occult traditions]] and [[Renaissance magic]], demons are often seen as beneficial and useful, lacking an inherent negative connotation.<ref name="Saif, Liana 2015">{{Cite book |last=Saif |first=Liana |title=The Arabic influences on early modern occult philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke}}</ref> In fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Renaissance magic, the terms ''demon'' and ''devil'' have two different, although not exclusive, meanings.<ref name="Maggi, A. 2001 p. 14-15">Maggi, A. (2001). Satan's Rhetoric: A Study of Renaissance Demonology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 14-15</ref> The term ''demons'' refers to a cluster of supernatural beings, such as daimons, spirits, and devils, affecting the mind.<ref name="Maggi, A. 2001 p. 14-15"/> While some people fear demons, or attempt to exorcise them, others willfully attempt to summon them for knowledge, assistance, or power. [[William of Conches]] ({{circa|1090/1091|1155/1170s}}) understands ''demon'' closer to the Greek ''{{Lang|grc-latn|daimōn}}'', reserving the concept of the devil only for the "demons of the lower regions":<blockquote>You think, as I infer from your words, that a demon is the same as a devil, which is not the case. For a demon is said to be any invisible being using reason, as if knowing. Of these the two high orders are called calodemons, that is, 'good knowing ones', the lower order is called cacodemon, that is, 'evil knowing one', for calos means 'good', cacos 'bad'.<ref name="Saif, Liana 2015"/></blockquote>

In the sixteenth century, among proponents of demons as ambivalent spirits, [[Paracelsus]] was the most vocal.<ref name="Goodare, Julian 2018">Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 175.</ref> He asserted that these beings are spirit-like and thus not human, but they have bodies and flesh and are thus, not angels.<ref name="Goodare, Julian 2018"/> [[Robert Kirk (folklorist)|Robert Kirk]] (1644–1692) integrated [[Fairy|fairies]] into his theories of intermediary spirits.<ref>Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 180.</ref> He suggested that these beings are structured similar to human societies, intelligent beings who eat and drink yet invisible to most humans.<ref>Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 181.</ref> Their views were rejected by demonologists and religious orthodoxy and labelled as "atheistic". They denied that spirits could have an autonomeous existence and that they are demons with the sole purpose of deceiving and harming people.<ref>Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 186-187.</ref>

A variety of spirits or the assumption that demons might be morally ambivalent is encouraged by [[necromancy]].<ref>Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 174.</ref> Here, a necromancer supposedly converses with the spirits of the dead. A ceremonial magician usually consults a [[grimoire]], which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them. Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give instructions for the invocation of deity, a process called [[theurgy]]. The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known as [[goetia|''goetia'']], a word derived from the Greek word {{Lang|grc-latn|goes}}, which originally denoted [[Divination|diviners]], [[Magic (supernatural)#Magicians|magicians]], healers, and [[Oracle|seer]]s.{{sfnp|Drury|Hume|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oV4BjGoOZvoC&pg=PA124 124]}}

=== Age of Enlightenment===
[[File:Japanese demon mask.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|The classic [[oni|''oni'']], a Japanese ogre-like creature which often has horns and often translated into English as "demon".]]
In the 16th to early 17th centuries, the idea – inherited from Renaissance magic and occultism – that demonic forces could be conjured and controlled may have paved the way for the development of modern sciences.<ref>Mebane, John S. Renaissance magic and the return of the Golden Age: the occult tradition and Marlowe, Jonson, and Shakespeare. U of Nebraska Press, 1992. p. 2</ref> In Hermetic- and Kabbalist philosophy, demons could be subjugated and shaped the idea that humans can control their social environment and their surrounding natural forces.<ref>Mebane, John S. Renaissance magic and the return of the Golden Age: the occult tradition and Marlowe, Jonson, and Shakespeare. U of Nebraska Press, 1992. p. 3</ref>

The [[Age of Enlightenment]] conceptualizes humans as [[Free will|autonomous individuals]], mostly independent from external invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate.<ref name="Rehmann">{{cite book |first=Luzia Sutter |last=Rehmann |title=Dämonen und unreine Geister: Die Evangelien, gelesen auf dem Hintergrund von Krieg, Vertreibung und Trauma |publisher=Gütersloher Verlagshaus |year=2023 |isbn=978-3641292973 |language=de}}</ref> While in the pre-modern period, spirits and demons were assigned to various natural phenomena, the [[Rationalism|rationalistic school of thought]], increasingly rejected the attribution of demons to unknown causes.<ref name="Mircea Eliade 1986 p. 287">Mircea Eliade ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' Macmillan Publishing (1986) p. 287</ref><ref name="Rehmann"/>

The rejection of demons as a form of superstition was also welcomed by religious perspective, considered to be a "removal" of remaining pagan beliefs. According to [[Wouter Hanegraaff]], demons are ''pagan'' beliefs, removed by the Age of Enlightenment.<ref>Josephson-Storm, Jason Ānanda. "The superstition, secularism, and religion trinary: Or re-theorizing secularism." Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 30.1 (2018): 13.</ref>

Many considered demons to be non-existent and alleged visions of demons and ghosts were explained as results of superstition. By that local religious customs were also oppressed in favor of nationwide (religious) ideas or deities.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Josephson-Storm |first=Jason Ānanda |title=The superstition, secularism, and religion trinary: Or re-theorizing secularism |journal=Method & Theory in the Study of Religion |volume=30 |number=1 |year=2018 |pages=1–20|doi=10.1163/15700682-12341409}}</ref> Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States.<ref name="Rehmann"/>

The rejection of demons as the cause of natural events also contributed to the association of demons with delusions and merely mental phenomena. For example, the notion that demons could possess an individual, stripped the individual away from their [[personhood]] and was at odds with modern Western philosophy. The most prominent ones, such as the [[American Dream]] and [[capitalism]], imply the belief that everyone is responsible for their own fate and not at the mercy of external forces, thus has no room left for demons or demonic possessions.<ref name="Rehmann"/> The concept of demons has nevertheless not disappeared from the public, permeating media, arts, and psychology.<ref name="Mircea Eliade 1986 p. 287"/>