Editing Dodona (section)

==History==

===Early history===
[[File:Sacrificial hammer Dodona Louvre Br1183 n2.jpg|thumb|Sacrificial hammer from Dodona. Bronze, 7th century BCE. Louvre Museum]]
Although the earliest inscriptions at the site date to c. 550–500 BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Lhôte|2006|p=77}}.</ref> archaeological excavations conducted for more than a century have recovered artifacts as early as the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean era]],<ref>{{harvnb|Eidinow|2014|pp=62–63}}; {{harvnb|Tandy|2001|p=23}}.</ref> many now at the [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]], and some in the archaeological museum at nearby [[Ioannina]]. There was an ancient tradition that Dodona was founded as a colony from the city, also named [[Dodona (Thessaly)|Dodona]], in [[ancient Thessaly|Thessaly]].<ref>{{Cite Stephanus|''sub voce'' Δωδώνη}}</ref>

Cult activity at Dodona was already established in some form during the Late Bronze Age (or Mycenaean period).<ref name=Eidinow/> Mycenaean offerings such as bronze objects of the 14th and 13th centuries were brought in Dodona.<ref>{{harvnb|Constantinidou|1992|p=160|ps=: Although without remains of a Mycenaean cult building, excavations at Dodona have shown that a cult was practised there from Mycenaean times. Mycenaean offerings, among them bronze objects of the 14th and 13th centuries were brought... }}</ref> A 13th century [[cist|cist tomb]] with squared shoulders was found at Dodona; it had no context, but a Mycenaean sherd of c. 1200 B.C. was also unearthed on the site, in association with [[kylix]] stems.<ref>{{harvnb|Desborough|1972|p=97|ps=: The tholos tomb at Parga, in which not only thirteenth-century Mycenaean but also native pottery was found, had a spearhead which may possibly be classed with the type mentioned. A short sword was found at Ephyra, not far south of Parga and also close to the sea (see above for the Mycenaean pottery on this site). North and inland from here, at Paramythia, a cist tomb (note the type) produced a rather earlier variety of the short sword, with sloping shoulders. Yet another, with squared shoulders (as are the others I shall mention) was found at Dodona, not far south of the plain of lannina; it had no context, but a Mycenaean sherd of c. 1200 b.c. was unearthed on the site, in association with what sound like kylix stems.}}</ref> Archaeological evidence shows that the cult of [[Zeus]] was established around the same time.<ref>{{harvnb|Curnow|2004|p=59|ps=: ...archaeology has uncovered clear evidence that the cult of Zeus was established at Dodona by about 1200 BC.}}</ref> During the post-Mycenaean period (or "[[Greek Dark Ages]]"), evidence of activity at Dodona is scant, but there is a resumption of contact between Dodona and southern Greece during the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]] (8th century BCE) with the presence of bronze votive offerings (i.e. [[Sacrificial_tripod#Ancient_Greece|tripod]]s) from southern Greek cities.<ref name=Eidinow>{{harvnb|Eidinow|2014|pp=62–63: "There appears to be evidence for contact between Epirus and Mycenean culture from the early and middle Bronze Age (mostly ceramic), with most evidence dating to the late Bronze Age and including as well as pottery remains, weaponry (swords and double-axes), tools and jewellery, and imports from the Europe and the Near East. Objects and archaeological remains at the site of Dodona suggest that there was already some kind of cult activity there in the late Bronze Age. There is little evidence for the Dark Age period (1200/1100-730/700 BC), but contact between the area and cities in South Greece seems to resume in the eighth century (with the foundation of Kassopeia in 730-700 BC by Elis, and settlements by Corinth, including Ambracia, Anaktorion Epidamnus and Apollonia, 650/630 BC); and this is supported by the appearance at Dodona of bronze votive offerings from the south of Greece, dating to the end of the eighth century, and beginning with the pervasive tripod, but going on through the archaic period to encompass a variety of animal, human and divine imagery."}}</ref> Dedication to the Oracle of Dodona arrived from most of the Greek world including its colonies. Although an adjacent area there were few Illyrian dedication most probably because the Oracle preferred interaction with the Greek world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chapinal-Heras |first=Diego |title=Experiencing Dodona: The Development of the Epirote Sanctuary from Archaic to Hellenistic Times |date=2021 |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-072772-2 |page=184 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTcYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT180 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Boardman|1982|p=653}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|1976|p=156}}.</ref> Until 650 BCE, Dodona was a religious and oracular centre mainly for northern tribes; only after 650 BCE did it become important for the southern tribes.<ref>{{harvnb|Boardman|Hammond|1982|pp=272–273}}.</ref>

[[Zeus]] was worshipped at Dodona as "Zeus Naios" or "Naos" (god of the spring below the oak in the [[Temenos|''temenos'' or sanctuary]], cf. [[Naiad]]s)<ref>{{harvnb|Kristensen|1960|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Tarn|1913|p=60}}.</ref> and as "Zeus Bouleus" (Counsellor).<ref>[[LSJ]]: ''bouleus''.</ref> According to [[Plutarch]], the worship of Jupiter (Zeus) at Dodona was set up by [[Deucalion]] and [[Pyrrha]].<ref>Plutarch. ''Parallel Lives'', [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pyrrhus.html Pyrrhus].</ref>

The earliest mention of Dodona is in [[Homer]], and only Zeus is mentioned in this account. In the ''[[Iliad]]'' (circa 750 BCE),<ref>Homer. ''Iliad'', 16.233-16.235.</ref> Achilles prays to "High Zeus, Lord of Dodona, [[Pelasgian]], living afar off, brooding over wintry Dodona" (thus demonstrating that Zeus also could be invoked from a distance).<ref>Richard Lattimore translation.</ref> No buildings are mentioned, and the priests (called ''[[Selloi]]'') slept on the ground with unwashed feet.<ref name="Bunson1997">{{harvnb|Sacks|Murray|1995|loc="Dodona", p. 85}}.</ref> No priestesses are mentioned in Homer.

The oracle also features in another passage involving Odysseus, giving a story of his visit to Dodona. Odysseus's words "bespeak a familiarity with Dodona, a realization of its importance, and an understanding that it was normal to consult Zeus there on a problem of personal conduct."<ref>{{harvnb|Gwatkin|1961|p=100}}.</ref>

The details of this story are as follows. Odysseus says to the swineherd Eumaeus<ref>Homer. ''Odyssey'', 14.327-14.328.</ref> (possibly giving him a fictive account) that he (Odysseus) was seen among the Thesprotians, having gone to inquire of the oracle at Dodona whether he should return to Ithaca openly or in secret (as the disguised Odysseus is doing). Odysseus later repeats the same tale to Penelope, who may not yet have seen through his disguise.<ref>Homer. ''Odyssey'', 19.</ref>

According to some scholars, Dodona was originally an oracle of the [[Mother Goddess]] attended by priestesses. She was identified at other sites as [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] or [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. The oracle also was shared by [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]]. By classical times, Dione was relegated to a minor role elsewhere in classical Greece, being made into an aspect of Zeus's more usual consort, [[Hera]] — but never at Dodona.<ref>{{harvnb|Vandenberg|2007|p=29}}.</ref>

Many dedicatory inscriptions recovered from the site mention both "Dione" and "Zeus Naios".<ref name="Filos2023a">{{harvnb|Filos|2023a|pp=38–41}}</ref>

According to some archaeologists, it was not until the 4th century BCE that a small stone temple to Dione was added to the site. By the time [[Euripides]] mentioned Dodona (fragmentary play ''Melanippe'') and Herodotus wrote about the oracle, the priestesses had appeared at the site.

Over 4200 oracular tablets have been found in Dodona, written in different alphabets, and dated approximately between the mid-6th and early 2nd centuries BCE. All the texts were written in Greek, and attest to over 1200 personal names from different areas; these were almost exclusively Greek, with non-Greek names (e.g. Thracian, Illyrian) making up around 1% of the total.<ref name="Filos2023a" /><ref>{{harvnb|Filos|2023b|p=406}}</ref>

===Classical and Hellenistic Greece===
[[File:Map greek sanctuaries-en.svg|thumb|right|350px|A map of the main sanctuaries in [[Classical Greece]].]]

Though it never eclipsed the [[Oracle of Delphi|Oracle of Apollo at Delphi]], Dodona gained a reputation far beyond Greece. In the ''Argonautica'' of [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], a retelling of an older story of [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]], Jason's ship, the "[[Argo]]", had the gift of prophecy, because it contained an oak timber spirited from Dodona.

In c. 290 BCE, [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|King Pyrrhus]] made Dodona the religious capital of his domain and beautified it by implementing a series of construction projects (i.e. grandly rebuilt the Temple of Zeus, developed many other buildings, added a festival featuring athletic games, musical contests, and drama enacted in a theatre).<ref name="Bunson1997"/> A wall was built around the oracle itself and the holy tree, as well as temples to Dione and [[Heracles]].

In 219 BCE, the [[Aetolia]]ns, under the leadership of General Dorimachus, looted and set fire to the sanctuary.<ref name="Bunson1997"/><ref>{{harvnb|Dakaris|1971|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2006|p=240}}.</ref> During the late 3rd century BCE, King [[Philip V of Macedon]] (along with the Epirotes) reconstructed all the buildings at Dodona.<ref name="Bunson1997"/><ref>{{harvnb|Dakaris|1971|p=46}}.</ref> In 167 BCE, the Molossian cities and possibly Dodona itself were destroyed by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]<ref name="Bunson1997"/><ref>{{harvnb|Dakaris|1971|p=62}}.</ref> (led by Aemilius Paulus<ref name="Pentreath1964">{{harvnb|Pentreath|1964|p=165}}.</ref>). A fragment of Dio Cassius reports that Thracian soldiers instigated by King Mithridates sacked the sanctuary ca. 88 BCE. In the reign of the emperor [[Augustus]] the site was prominent enough to feature an honorary statue of [[Livia]]. The 2nd century CE traveller [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] noted a sacred oak tree of Zeus.<ref>Pausanias. ''Description of Greece'', 1.18.</ref> In 241 CE, a priest named Poplius Memmius Leon organized the Naia festival of Dodona.<ref>{{harvnb|Dakaris|1971|p=26}}.</ref> In 362 CE, [[Emperor Julian]] consulted the oracle prior to his military campaigns against the Persians.<ref>{{harvnb|Dakaris|1971|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Fontenrose|1988|p=25}}.</ref>

Pilgrims still consulted the oracle until 391-392 CE when [[Emperor Theodosius]] closed all pagan temples, banned all pagan religious activities, and cut down the ancient oak tree at the sanctuary of Zeus.<ref>{{harvnb|Flüeler|Rohde|2009|p=36}}.</ref> Although the surviving town was insignificant, the long-hallowed pagan site must have retained significance for Christians given that a [[bishop of Dodona]] named Theodorus attended the [[First Council of Ephesus]] in 431 CE.<ref name="Pentreath1964" />

{{wide image|D70-0404-dodona.jpg|800px|Panorama of the theatre of Dodona, the modern village [[Dodoni]] and the snow-capped Mount [[Tomaros]] are visible in the background}}