Editing Dual-coding theory (section)

== Support ==
===Evidence from psychological research===
Many researchers have agreed that only words and images are used in mental representation.<ref name="Pylyshyn-1973" /> Supporting evidence shows that memory for some verbal information is enhanced if a relevant visual is also presented or if the learner can imagine a visual image to go with the verbal information. Likewise, visual information can often be enhanced when paired with relevant verbal information, whether real-world or imagined.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson, John R.|title=Human Associative Memory|date=2014|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-1-317-76988-0|oclc=871224620}}</ref> This theory has been applied to the use of multimedia presentations. Because multimedia presentations require both spatial and verbal working memory, individuals dual code information presented and are more likely to recall the information when tested at a later date.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brunyé|first1=Tad T.|last2=Taylor|first2=Holly A.|last3=Rapp|first3=David N.|date=2007|title=Repetition and dual coding in procedural multimedia presentations|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|volume=22|issue=7|pages=877–895|doi=10.1002/acp.1396|s2cid=1853751 |issn=0888-4080}}</ref> Moreover, studies that have been conducted on abstract and concrete words have also found that the participants remembered concrete words better than the abstract words.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hargis, Gickling|first=Charles H, Edward E|date=May 1978|title=The Function of Imagery in Word Recognition Development|journal=The Reading Teacher|volume=31|pages=870–874|jstor=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sadoski|first1=Mark|last2=Willson|first2=Victor L.|last3=Holcomb|first3=Angelia|last4=Boulware-Gooden|first4=Regina|date=2004|title=Verbal and Nonverbal Predictors of Spelling Performance|journal=Journal of Literacy Research|volume=36|issue=4|pages=461–478|doi=10.1207/s15548430jlr3604_2|issn=1086-296X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Concrete vs abstract words – what do you recall better? A study on dual coding theory|last1=Yui|first1=Lin|last2=Ng|first2=Roslin|date=2017-01-14|last3=Perera-W.A.|first3=Hiran|doi=10.7287/peerj.preprints.2719v1 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Paivio found that participants when shown a rapid sequence of pictures as well as a rapid sequence of words and later asked to recall the words and pictures, in any order, were better at recalling images. Participants, however, more readily recalled the sequential order of the words, rather than the sequence of pictures. These results supported Paivio's hypothesis that verbal information is processed differently from visual information and that verbal information was superior to visual information when sequential order was also required for the memory task.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paivio|first=Allan|date=1969|title=Mental imagery in associative learning and memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=76|issue=3|pages=241–263|doi=10.1037/h0027272|issn=0033-295X}}</ref> Lee Brooks conducted an experiment that provided additional support for two systems for memory. He had participants perform either a visual task, where they had to view a picture and answer questions about the picture, or a verbal task, where they listened to a sentence and were then asked to answer questions pertaining to the sentence. To respond to the questions, participants were asked to either respond verbally, visually, or manually. Through this experiment, Brooks found that interference occurred when a visual perception was mixed with manipulation of the visual task, and verbal responses interfere with a task involving a verbal statement to be manually manipulated. This supported the idea of two codes used to mentally represent information.<ref name="Sternberg-2016" />

[[Working memory]] as proposed by [[Alan Baddeley]] includes a two-part processing system with a visuospatial sketchpad and a phonological loop which essentially maps to Paivio's theory.

Dual-coding theories complement a dual-route theory of [[Reading (activity)|reading]]. When people read written information, dual-route theory contends that the readers access [[Orthography|orthographic]] and [[Phonology|phonological]] information to recognize [[Word (linguistics)|words]] in the [[writing]].

Paivio's work has implications for literacy, visual [[mnemonics]], idea generation, [[Human Performance Technology|HPT]], human factors, interface design, as well as the development of educational materials among others. It also has implications for, and counterparts in, [[cognitive sciences]] and computational cognitive modeling (in the form of dual process cognitive models and so on<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson, John Robert.|title=Cognitive psychology and its implications |date=2005|publisher=Worth Publishers|isbn=0-7167-0110-3|oclc=587804014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Just|first1=Marcel Adam|last2=Newman|first2=Sharlene D|last3=Keller|first3=Timothy A|last4=McEleney|first4=Alice|last5=Carpenter|first5=Patricia A|date=2004|title=Imagery in sentence comprehension: an fMRI study|journal=NeuroImage|volume=21|issue=1|pages=112–124|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.08.042|pmid=14741648|s2cid=2912716|issn=1053-8119|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/6615095}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sun, Ron, 1960–|title=Duality of the mind : a bottom-up approach toward cognition|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8058-3880-0|oclc=858009136}}</ref>). It also has had implications for cognitive robotics.

===Cognitive neuroscience support===
Two different methods have been used to identify the regions involved in visual perception and visual imagery. First, [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) is used to measure [[cerebral blood flow]], which allows researchers to identify the amount of glucose and oxygen being consumed by a specific part of the brain, with an increase in blood flow providing a measure of brain activity. Second, an [[event-related potential]] (ERP) can be used to show the amount of electrical brain activity that is occurring due to a particular stimulus. Researchers have used both methods to determine which areas of the brain are active with different stimuli, and results have supported the dual-coding theory. Other research has been done with [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) scans and fMRI to show that participants had improved memory for spoken words and sentences when paired with an image, imagined or real. Those participants also showed an increase in brain activation that processes abstract words not easily paired with an image.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Crosson|first1=Bruce|last2=Ford|first2=Anastasia|last3=McGregor|first3=Keith M.|last4=Meinzer|first4=Marcus|last5=Cheshkov|first5=Sergey|last6=Li|first6=Xiufeng|last7=Walker-Batson|first7=Delaina|last8=Briggs|first8=Richard W.|date=2010|title=Functional imaging and related techniques: An introduction for rehabilitation researchers|journal=The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development|volume=47|issue=2|pages=vii–xxxiv|doi=10.1682/jrrd.2010.02.0017|pmid=20593321|pmc=3225087|issn=0748-7711|doi-access=free}}</ref>