Editing Duke of Sutherland (section)

==Clearances==
[[File:The Highland emigrants monuments Helmsdale.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''The Emigrants Statue'' commemorates the flight of Highlanders during the [[Highland Clearances]], but is also a testament to their accomplishments in the places they settled. Located in the Sutherland village of [[Helmsdale]], Scotland.]]
The 1st Duke and [[Elizabeth Leveson-Gower, Duchess of Sutherland|Duchess of Sutherland]] remain controversial for their role in the [[Highland Clearances]], when thousands of tenants were evicted and resettled in coastal villages. This allowed the vacated land to be used for extensive sheep farming, replacing the mixed farming carried out by the previous occupants. This was part of the [[Scottish Agricultural Revolution]]. The changes on the Sutherland estate were motivated by two major objectives. The first was to increase the rental income from the estate: sheep farmers could afford much higher rents. The second was to remove the population from the recurrent risks of famine.{{R|Richards 2013|p=157}} Historical opinion differs on the relevance and severity of famine years, but most do not dispute that the Highland region remained the only part of mainland Britain that was affected in this way at this time.{{R|Richards 2013|p=48}}

The future 1st Duke became the proprietor of the Sutherland Estate (which comprised much of the county of Sutherland) on his marriage to Lady Elizabeth Sutherland, the Countess of Sutherland, in 1785. Despite the conventions of the day, Lady Sutherland{{Efn|The first Duchess of Sutherland was known by several different names as she acquired titles throughout her life. She was the Countess of Sutherland from the age of 1, and continued to be known by that title by her tenants. Later she was the Marchioness of Stafford (from her husband's title) and became the Duchess-Countess of Sutherland when her husband became Duke. Fortunately, throughout this time, she was often referred to simply as Lady Sutherland.}} retained control of the management of the estate, rather than passing this responsibility to her husband.{{R|Richards 2013|pp=154-155}}

The Sutherland Clearances did not start until the 19th century, mainly due to insufficient capital – a problem that was solved when, in 1803, [[George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland|George Leveson-Gower, the future 1st Duke]] inherited a huge fortune from the [[Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater|Duke of Bridgewater]]. The remaining delay was that many leases did not expire until 1807 or later, but plans were put together for the interior of the estate to be devoted to large sheep farms, with new settlements to be built for the displaced inhabitants.<ref name="Richards 2013">{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Eric |title=The Highland Clearances People, Landlords and Rural Turmoil |date=2000 |publisher=Birlinn |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-78027-165-1 |edition=2013}}</ref>{{Rp|162}} A tentative start was made to this with the letting of the first big sheep farm at Lairg in 1807, involving the removal of about 300 people. Many of these did not accept their new homes and emigrated, to the dissatisfaction of the estate management and Lady Sutherland.{{R|Richards 2013|pp=164-165}}

Lady Sutherland was not happy with the estate factor and, in 1811, replaced him with William Young and [[Patrick Sellar]].{{Efn|There was some ambiguity over the precise roles of these two men. At one stage of the recruitment process, they arguably had equal and independent powers. This shifted to Young having the role of commissioner and Sellar being factor, so placing Young in overall control. This process involved much argument from Sellar, with Lady Sutherland considering seeking his resignation before he had even completed a year in the position.}}<ref name="Adams 1972">{{Cite book |editor-last=Adams |editor-first=R. J. |title=Papers on Sutherland Estate Management 1802-1816, Volume 1 |date=1972 |publisher=Scottish History Society |location=Edinburgh |isbn=0950026042}}</ref>{{Rp|xvi-xxi}} Young had a proven track record of agricultural improvement in Moray and Sellar was a lawyer educated at the [[University of Edinburgh]]; both were fully versed in the modern ideas of [[Adam Smith]]. They provided an extra level of ambition for the estate. {{R|Richards 2013|p=166}} New industries were added to the plans, to employ the resettled population. A coal mine was sunk at Brora, and fishing villages were built to exploit the herring shoals off the coast.<ref name="Richards 1999"/>{{Rp|page=71}} Other ideas were tanning, flax, salt and brick manufacturing. {{R|Richards 2013|p=167}}

The next clearances were in Assynt in 1812, under the direction of Sellar, establishing large sheep farms and resettling the old tenants on the coast. Sellar had the assistance of the local tacksmen in this and the process was conducted without unrest – despite the unpopularity of events. However, in 1813, planned clearances in the Strath of Kildonan were accompanied by riots: an angry mob drove prospective sheep farmers out of the valley when they came to view the land, and a situation of confrontation existed for more than six weeks, with Sellar failing to successfully negotiate with the protesters. Ultimately, the army was called out and the estate made concessions such as paying very favourable prices for the cattle of those being cleared. This was assisted by landlords in surrounding districts taking in some of those displaced and an organised party emigrating to Canada. The whole process was a severe shock to Lady Sutherland and her advisers, who were, in the words of historian Eric Richards, "genuinely astonished at this response to plans which they regarded as wise and benevolent".{{R|Richards 2013|pp=168-172}}

Further clearances were scheduled in Strathnaver starting at [[Whitsun]], 1814. These were complicated by Sellar having successfully bid for the lease of one of the new sheep farms on land that it was now his responsibility, as factor, to clear. (Overall, this clearance was part of the removal of 430 families from Strathnaver and Brora in 1814 – an estimated 2,000 people.{{R|Richards 2013|p=180}}) Sellar had also made an enemy of the local law officer, Robert Mackid, by catching him poaching on the Sutherland's land.{{R|Richards 2013|p=178}} There was some confusion among the tenants as Sellar made concessions to some of them, allowing them to stay in their properties a little longer. Some tenants moved in advance of the date in their eviction notice – others stayed until the eviction parties arrived.{{R|Richards 2013|p=181}}

As was normal practice, the roof timbers of cleared houses were destroyed to prevent re-occupation after the eviction party had left. On 13 June 1814, this was done by burning in the case of Badinloskin, the house occupied by William Chisholm. Accounts vary, but it is possible that his elderly and bedridden mother-in-law was still in the house when it was set on fire. In James Hunter's understanding of events, Sellar ordered her to be immediately carried out as soon as he realised what was happening. The old lady died six days later.<ref name="Hunter 2015">{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=James |title=Set Adrift Upon the World: the Sutherland Clearances |date=2015 |publisher=Birlinn |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-78027-268-9}}</ref>{{Rp|197}} Eric Richards suggests that the old woman was carried to an outbuilding before the house was destroyed.{{R|Richards 2013|p=183}} Whatever the facts of the matter, Sellar was charged with culpable homicide and arson, in respect of this incident and others during this clearance. The charges were brought by Robert Mackid.{{R|Richards 2013|p=170}}

As the trial approached, the Sutherland estate was reluctant to assist Sellar in his defence, distancing themselves from their employee.{{R|Richards 2013|p=170}} He was acquitted of all charges at his trial in 1816. The estate were hugely relieved, taking this as a justification of their clearance activity. (Robert Mackid became a ruined man and had to leave the county to rebuild his career elsewhere, providing Sellar with a grovelling letter of apology and confession.)<ref name="Richards 1999">{{Cite book|last1=Richards|first1=Eric|title=Patrick Sellar and the Highland Clearances: Homicide, Eviction and the Price of Progress|date=1999|publisher=Polygon|location=Edinburgh|isbn=1-902930-13-4}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=209–212}}

Despite the acquittal, this event, and Sellar's role in it, was fixed in the popular view of the Sutherland Clearances. [[James Loch]], the Stafford estate commissioner was now taking a greater interest in the Northern part of his employer's holdings; he thought Young's financial management was incompetent, and Sellar's actions among the people deeply concerning. Both Sellar and William Young soon left their management posts with the Sutherland estate (though Sellar remained as a major tenant). Loch, nevertheless, also subscribed to the theory that clearance was beneficial for the tenants as much as for the estate.{{R|Richards 1999|pp=215-217}}{{R|Richards 2013|p=189}}

Lady Sutherland's displeasure with events was added to by critical reports in a minor London newspaper, the ''Military Register'', from April 1815. These were soon carried in larger newspapers. They originated from Alexander Sutherland, who, with his brother John Sutherland of Sciberscross,{{Efn|The territorial designation after his name denotes that the Sutherland brothers were members of the ''daoine uaisle'' or tacksman class, sometimes described as 'gentry'.}} were opponents of clearance. Alexander, after serving as a captain in the army had been thwarted in his hopes to take up leases on the Sutherland estate and now worked as a journalist in London. He was therefore well placed to cause trouble for the estate.{{R|Hunter 2015|pp=183-187,203}}

The (effective) dismissal of Sellar placed him in the role of scapegoat, thereby preventing a proper critical analysis of the estate's policies.<ref name="Richards 1985">{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Eric |title=A History of the Highland Clearances, Volume 2: Emigration, Protest, Reasons |date=1985|publisher=Croom Helm |location=Beckenham, Kent and Sydney, Australia |isbn=0709922590}}</ref>{{Rp|388}} Clearances continued under the factorship of Frances Suther and the overall control of James Loch. Through 1816 and 1817, famine conditions affected most of the inland areas and the estate had to provide relief to those who were destitute. This altered policy on emigration: if tenants wanted to emigrate, the estate would not object, but there was still no active encouragement.

In 1818 a large (perhaps the largest) clearance program was put into effect, lasting until 1820. Loch gave emphatic instructions intended to avoid another public relations disaster: rent arrears could be excused for those who co-operated, time was to be taken and rents for the new crofts were to be set as low as possible.

The process did not start well. The Reverend David Mackenzie of Kildonan wrote to Loch on behalf of the 220 families due to be cleared from his parish. He challenged the basic premise of the clearance: that the people from an inland region could make a living on their new coastal crofts. Loch was adamant that the removals would go ahead regardless of objections. Yet, at the same time, Suther and the local ground officer of the estate were pointing out to Loch that few of the new crofts were of an acceptable quality. Some tenants were considering moving off the estate, either to Caithness or emigrating to America or the Cape of Good Hope, which Suther encouraged by writing off their rent arrears. More positively, cattle prices were high in 1818. Ultimately, that year's clearances passed without serious protest.

The next two years had much bigger clearances: 425 families (about 2,000 people) in 1819 and 522 families in 1820. Loch was anxious to move quickly, whilst cattle prices were high and there was a good demand for leases of sheep farms. There was no resistance in 1819, but Suther, despite precise instructions to the contrary, used fire to destroy cleared houses.