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==History== {{see also|Timeline of Dushanbe history}} === Ancient times === In the [[Stone Age]], [[Mousterian]] tool-users inhabited the [[Hisar Valley]] near modern-day Dushanbe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=15|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> The Gissar culture, whose stone tools were discovered within modern-day Dushanbe at the confluence of the [[Varzob River|Varzob]] and Luchob,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=100|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> [[Bishkent culture]], and [[Vakhsh culture]] all were thought to have inhabited the valley in the second millennium BC, during the [[Neolithic]] period, and were primarily involved in cattle breeding, agriculture, and weaving.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hissar Culture|url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Hissar+Culture|access-date=2020-08-02|website=TheFreeDictionary.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=21, 25|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref><ref name="Ceroi-2008" /> Near [[Dushanbe International Airport]], [[Bronze Age]] burials were discovered dating from the end of the second to the beginning of the first millennium BC.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=107–108|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] dishes and ceramics were found {{Convert|6|km|mi}} east of Dushanbe in Qiblai,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=27|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> as the city was controlled by the Achaemenids from the sixth century BC.<ref name="Ceroi-2008" /> Archaeological remnants of a small [[citadel]] dating to the fifth century BC have been discovered {{Convert|40|km|mi}} south<ref>{{Cite book|title=Yavan, Oxford Art Online|date=2002|publisher=Macmillan|others=Macy, Laura Williams.|isbn=1-884446-05-1|location=[Basingstoke, England]|oclc=50959350}}</ref> and wedge-shaped copper axes have been discovered from the second century BC.<ref name="Dushanbe twinning">{{cite web|title=Regions: Dushanbe & Surroundings|url=http://www.visittajikistan.tj/en/regions/dushanbe.php|access-date=10 May 2013|work=Official Website of the Tourism Authority of Tajikistan|publisher=Committee of Youth Affairs, Sports and Tourism|archive-date=22 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122092635/http://www.visittajikistan.tj/en/regions/dushanbe.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] conquered the region in 312 BC.<ref name="Davidzon-1983a">{{Cite book|last=M.|first=Davidzon|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/11399951|title=Dushanbe, a guide|date=1983|publisher=Raduga|pages=10–11|oclc=11399951}}</ref> A small [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] settlement of about {{convert|40|ha}} was dated to the end of the third century BC.<ref name="Dushanbe twinning" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=110|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref><ref name="Sedov-2020">{{Cite web|title=Southern Tajikistan in Kushana period|url=http://www.afc.ryukoku.ac.jp/tj/tajikistanEnglish/C-ancienttime/C-6top.html|access-date=2020-08-02|publisher=[[National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan]]}}</ref> The oldest coin found in the city is a Greco-Bactrian coin depicting [[Eucratides I|Eucratides]] (r. 171–145 BC) and another was found depicting [[Dionysus]].<ref name="Davidzon-1983a" /><ref name="Dushanbe Encyc-2004c">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65068362|title=Dushanbe : ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡|publisher=Glavnai︠a︡ nauchnai︠a︡ redakt︠s︡ii︠a︡ Tadzhikskoĭ nat︠s︡ionalʹnoĭ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii|others=Dinorshoev, Muso.|year=2004|isbn=5-89870-071-4|location=Dushanbe|language=ru|chapter=Historical Sketch|oclc=65068362|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028115236/http://dushanbe.tj/img/ENS.doc|archive-date=28 October 2010}}</ref> There was also a [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] city on the left bank of the [[Varzob River|Varzob river]] from the [[2nd century BC]] to [[3rd century|3rd century AD]] containing burial sites from the time period.<ref name="Dushanbe twinning" /><ref name="Sedov-2020" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=125–126|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> The Kushans created other settlements such as Garavkala, Tepai Shah, Shakhrinau, and Uzbekontepa.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Hiebert|first1=F. T.|last2=Kohl|first2=P. L.|date=2012-10-20|others=R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies|title=Garav kala: a Pleiades place resource|url=https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/971757|access-date=2020-08-02|website=Pleiades: a gazetteer of past places}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=38–39|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> The [[Sasanian Empire]] invaded [[Sogdia]]na in the fifth century, possibly giving coins as tribute to the [[Kidarites]] which ended up on the site of today's city.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gariboldi|first1=Andrea|last2=Saripov|first2=Abduvali|date=2012|title=A Sasanian Hoard from Dushanbe|url=http://www.socnumit.org/estratti/G/GariboldiA2012.Dushambe.pdf|journal=[[Studia Iranica]]|volume=41|pages=169–186|access-date=6 March 2021|archive-date=4 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304174526/http://www.socnumit.org/estratti/G/GariboldiA2012.Dushambe.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Довуди|first=Давлатходжа|title=Древние и средневековые монеты, найденные на территории города Душанбе|url=https://www.academia.edu/41712153|journal=Древние и средневековые монеты, найденные на территории города Душанбе|date=January 2004}}</ref> The ruins of a Buddhist monastery of the [[Hephthalites|Hephthalite]] period of the late fifth to sixth century, now referred to as [[Ajina Tepe]], lie in the [[Vakhsh District|Vaksh valley]] near Dushanbe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Litvinskiĭ|first=B. A.|title=Ajina Tepe|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ajina-tepe-the-present-day-name-of-the-mound-covering-the-ruins-of-an-early-medieval-buddhist-monastery-sarigharama|access-date=2020-08-02|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> Other settlements from the [[Tokharistan]] period have also been discovered, like the town of Shishikona that was destroyed during the [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet era]] and depopulated during the [[Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Mongol invasion]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=54–55, 85, 90|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Illustrations|url=https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/8366/02_Illustrations.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y|page=3}}</ref> [[International trade#History|International trade]] picked up during this period in the region.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=133|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> A castle was also discovered dating from the time period.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=136|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> In 582, the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]] gained control over the region.<ref name="Davidzon-1983a" /> In the seventh century, a Chinese pilgrim visited the region and mentioned the city of Shuman, possibly on the site of modern Dushanbe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=170|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turekulova|first1=Natalia|last2=Turekulov|first2=Timur|year=2004–2005|title=Tajikistan: A view from outside|url=https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/heritage/article/download/21047/14817|journal=Heritage at Risk|publisher=[[ICOMOS]]|issn=2365-5615}}</ref> After the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Arab conquest]], the [[Samanids]] controlled the region, which was involved in crafts and trade,<ref name="Ceroi-2008" /> and in the 10th-12th centuries the medieval city of [[Hulbuk]] developed near Dushanbe, which notably contained the [[palace of the governor of Khulbuk]], "an artistic treasure of the Tajik people", among other smaller medieval settlements like Shishikhona.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=61, 144|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> The [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Kharakhanids]] minted coins from 1018 to 1019 found in the city.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|page=163|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref> The city came under the influence of the [[Ghurids]] from the 12th to 13th centuries.<ref name="Ceroi-2008" /> Other smaller settlements were founded during the Late Middle Ages after the [[Mongol conquest of Central Asia|Mongol invasion]], such as Abdullaevsky and Shainak. [[Timur]] conquered the region during this time period and various other empires controlled the city. The city's economy started to rely more heavily on crafts and trade.<ref name="Ceroi-2008" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich)|url=https://archive.nyu.edu/bitstream/2451/43419/1/isawdca_000960.pdf|title=Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ|date=1993|publisher=Izd-vo "Donish"|others=Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich)|isbn=5-8366-0427-4|location=Dushanbe|pages=149–151|language=ru|oclc=32311792}}</ref><ref name="Davidzon-1983a" /> <gallery mode="nolines" widths="260" heights="180" class="center"> File:Bishkent culture.jpg|[[Bishkent culture]] File:Vakhsh culture.jpg|[[Vakhsh culture]] File:Kara-Khanid Khanate.png|[[Kara-Khanid Khanate]] File:Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg|[[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactria]] </gallery> === Market town === The first time Dushanbe appeared in the historical record was in 1676, in a letter sent from the [[Balkh]] khan Subhonquli Bahodur to [[Fyodor Alekseyevich|Fyodor III]], the [[Tzar of Russia|Tsar of Russia]]. However, the Balkh historian Mahmud ibn Wali mentioned the area in the 1630s in the book ''Sea of Secrets Regarding the Values of the Noble''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-04-19|title=АҶАБ ШАҲРИ ДИЛОРОЙӢ|trans-title=The Wonderful City of Dushanbe|url=http://sadoimardum.tj/minta-a-o/dushanbe/a-ab-sha-ri-diloroj/|access-date=2020-08-03|website=Садои мардум|language=tg-cyrl}}</ref><ref name="Abdullaev-2018a">{{Cite book|last=Abdullaev, Kamoludin|title=Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan|date=2018|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-5381-0252-7|pages=130–131|chapter=Dushanbe|oclc=1049912411}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Душанбе (столица Таджикистана)|url=https://geosfera.org/aziya/tadzhikistan/835-dushanbe-stolica-tadzhikistana.html|access-date=2020-09-18|website=Планета Земля|language=ru}}</ref> At first, the town was called "Kasabai Dushanbe" ({{langx|fa|قصبه دوشنبه}} қасабаи Душанбе), when it was under the control of [[Balkh#16th to 19th centuries|Balkh]]. This name reflected both Dushanbe's status as a town, with Kasaba meaning town, and the influence of trade, as the name Dushanbe, which means Monday in Persian, was due to the large [[bazaar]] in the village that operated on Mondays. Dushanbe's location between the [[Trade route|caravan routes]] heading east–west from the [[Gissar Valley]] through [[Karategin]] to the [[Alay Valley]], and north–south to the [[Kafirnigan River]] and then to [[Vakash Valley|Vaksh Valley]] and [[Durrani Empire|Afghanistan]] through the [[Anzob Pass]] from the [[Fergana Valley|Fergana]] and [[Zarafshan Range#Geography and Geology|Zeravshan valleys]] that ultimately led traders to [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]], [[Pamir Mountains|the Pamirs]], and [[Afghanistan]] incentivized the development of its market.<ref name="Dushanbe twinning" /><ref name="CICA Summit-2019" /><ref name="Rusu-2016">{{Cite book|last1=Rusu|first1=Stefan|url=https://issuu.com/suhebator/docs/spaces_on_the_run_dag_tj_2015|title=Spaces on the Run|last2=Dubovitskiy|first2=Victor|publisher=Dushanbe Art Ground|year=2016|isbn=978-99947-892-7-6|location=Turkey. Istanbul|page=31}}</ref> At the time, the town had a population of around 7,000–8,000 with around 500–600 households.<ref name="tiroz-2019" /> [[File:Alim Khan (1880–1944), Emir of Bukhara, photographed by S.M. Prokudin-Gorskiy in 1911.jpg|thumb|1911 color photograph of the last Emir of [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]], [[Mohammed Alim Khan|Alim Khan]]]] By 1826, the town was called ''Dushanbe Qurghan'' ({{langx|tg|Душанбе Қурғон}}, ''Dushanbe Qurghon'', with the suffix ''qurƣon'' from [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] ''qurğan'', meaning "fortress"). It was first Russified as ''Dyushambe'' ({{lang|ru|Дюшамбе}}) in 1875. It had a [[caravanserai]], a stopping point for travelers to [[Samarkand]], [[Khujand]], [[Kulob]] and [[the Pamirs]]. It boasted 14 [[mosque]]s with [[Kuttab|maktabs]], 2 [[Madrasa|madrassas]], and 14 teahouses at the turn of the 19th century. At that time, the town was a citadel on a steep bank on the left bank of the [[Varzob River]] with 10,000 residents.<ref name="Ceroi-2008">{{Cite web|date=2008-12-01|title=Краткая историческая справка|url=http://www.ceroi.net/reports/dushanbe/Rus/history.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201150219/http://www.ceroi.net/reports/dushanbe/Rus/history.htm|archive-date=1 December 2008|access-date=2020-08-02|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65068362|title=Dushanbe : ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡|date=2004|publisher=Glavnai︠a︡ nauchnai︠a︡ redakt︠s︡ii︠a︡ Tadzhikskoĭ nat︠s︡ionalʹnoĭ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii|others=Dinorshoev, Muso.|isbn=5-89870-071-4|location=Dushanbe|language=ru|chapter=Urban Planning and Architecture|oclc=65068362|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028115236/http://dushanbe.tj/img/ENS.doc|archive-date=28 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="tiroz-2019">{{Cite web|date=2019-07-19|title=Аҷаб шаҳри дилороӣ, Душанбе…|url=http://tiroz.org/a-ab-sha-ri-diloro-dushanbe/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=tiroz.org|language=ru}}</ref> It was a center for [[weaving]], [[Tanning (leather)|tanning]], and [[iron smelting]] production in the region. Various states, including [[Hisor]], exercised control over the city during the 18th and early 19th century despite Bukharan claims of sovereignty. In 1868, the [[Russian Empire|Tsarist government]] established suzerainty over Bukhara. In the unstable environment of Russian intervention and local revolts, Bukhara took over the Dushanbe region, control over which the Emirate was able to sustain through the gradual establishment of a Russian-influenced centralized state.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Becker|first=Seymour.|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/004408983|title=Russia's protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865-1924.|date=1968|publisher=Harvard University Press|series=Russian Research Center studies|location=Cambridge|pages=48–50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Morrison|first=Alexander|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1224354503|title=The Russian conquest of Central Asia : a study in imperial expansion, 1814-1914|date=2020|isbn=978-1-139-34338-1|location=Cambridge, UK|page=255|oclc=1224354503}}</ref> The first hospital in the village was constructed in 1915 by Russian investment<ref name="Shermatov-2020">{{Cite web|title="Русский дом", "Заразка" и "Детский садик" - истории инфекционных больниц Душанбе {{!}} Новости Таджикистана ASIA-Plus|url=https://asiaplustj.info/ru/news/tajikistan/society/20200603/russkii-dom-zarazka-i-detskii-sadik-istorii-infektsionnih-bolnits-dushanbe|access-date=2020-08-02|website=asiaplustj.info|language=ru}}</ref> and an early railroad was proposed to connect the market town with the Russian railway system in 1909, but was abandoned after a review determined the venture would not be profitable, although the town did have a functioning railroad to [[Kogon, Uzbekistan|Kagan]].<ref name="Вечёрка-2019">{{Cite web|last=Вечёрка|date=2019-07-09|title=Душанбе - столица края|url=https://vecherka.tj/archives/39028|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Вечёрка|language=ru}}</ref> In 1920, the [[Mohammed Alim Khan|last Emir of Bukhara]] briefly took refuge in Dushanbe after being overthrown by the [[Bolshevik Revolution|Bolshevik revolution]]. After the [[Red Army]] conquered the area the next year, he fled to Afghanistan on 4 March 1921.<ref name="Ruttig-2018">{{Cite web|date=2018-12-27|title=A Tomb in Kabul: The Fate of the Last Amir of Bukhara and his country's relations with Afghanistan|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/regional-relations/a-garden-and-a-tomb-in-kabul-2-the-fate-of-the-last-amir-of-bukhara-and-his-countrys-relations-with-afghanistan/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network - English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bleuer, Christian|title=Tajkistan: A Political and Social History.|date=2013|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-925021-15-8|page=56|oclc=1076650077}}</ref><ref name="Davidzon-1983b">{{Cite book|last=M.|first=Davidzon|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/11399951|title=Dushanbe, a guide|date=1983|publisher=Raduga|pages=13–14|oclc=11399951}}</ref> In February 1922, the town was taken by [[Basmachi]] troops led by [[Enver Pasha]] after a siege,<ref name="Ruttig-2018"/> but on 14 July 1922 again came under the power of the [[Bolsheviks]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Projorov, A. M.|title=[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]|date=1973–1982|publisher=Macmillan|chapter=Dushanbe|oclc=435381348}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=http://www.dushanbehotels.ru/eng/dushanbe/history.htm|access-date=2020-08-03|website=www.dushanbehotels.ru|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401065609/http://www.dushanbehotels.ru/eng/dushanbe/history.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> soon before the death of Enver Pasha on 4 August 1922 outside of Dushanbe.<ref name="Ruttig-2018" /><ref name="Lonely Planet-2016" /> It was a part of the [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic|Bukharan PSR]] until the formation of the [[Tajik ASSR]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Бухарская Народная Советская Республика - это... Что такое Бухарская Народная Советская Республика?|url=https://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/72017/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F|access-date=2020-08-03|website=Словари и энциклопедии на Академике|language=ru}}</ref> ==== Capital of the Tajik ASSR ==== [[File:Map of the national state delimitation of the republics of Central Asia (1924-1925) - not so busy.svg|alt=|thumb|National delimitation of Central Asia; the [[Tajik ASSR]] is in light purple]] Dushanbe was proclaimed the capital of the [[Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] as a part of the [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic]] in October 1924, and the government started to function formally on 15 March 1925.<ref name="Atkin-2020">{{Cite web|last=Atkin|first=Muriel|title=Dushanbe|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/dushanbe|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation, Inc.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bleuer, Christian|title=Tajkistan: A Political and Social History|date=2013|publisher=Australian National University|page=41|oclc=940754059}}</ref><ref name="Abdullaev-2018b">{{Cite book|last=Abdullaev, Kamoludin|title=Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan|date=2018|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-5381-0252-7|pages=xxviii–xxxvi|chapter=Chronology|oclc=1049912411}}</ref> Dushanbe was chosen instead of larger-populated villages in [[Tajikistan]] because of its role as a crossroads of Tajikistan for its large market served as a meeting place for much of Tajikistan's population. Along with its market, there was a lively [[livestock]] trade as well as trade in [[fabrics]], [[leather]], [[Tin|tin products]], and [[weapon]]s.<ref name="Фергана-2020" /> The mild [[Mediterranean climate]] was another reason Soviet authorities chose the city as the capital.<ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /> Before the Emir's relocation to the city, Dushanbe had the only [[History of the Jews in Tajikistan|Jewish population in Eastern Bukhara]] (of about 600) whom were involved in trade and tailoring. When the Emir moved to the city in 1920, however, the Jewish population's property was plundered and the Jews were relocated to [[Hisor]]. They were only let back into Dushanbe with its conquest by the Red Army, and in the 1920s and 1930s their population gradually increased with [[Bukharan Jews|Bukharan]] immigrants.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Редакция|title=Душанбе|url=https://eleven.co.il/diaspora/communities/11494/|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Электронная еврейская энциклопедия ОРТ|language=ru}}</ref><ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /> Dushanbe was also officially recognized as the capital of the [[Emirate of Bukhara]] during its waning days as it served as the last refuge of the last Emir of Bukhara during its conquest by the Soviet Union, possibly another motivating factor for the decision to establish the new [[Tajik ASSR|ASSR's]] capital in the village.<ref name="Фергана-2020">{{Cite web|title=Чтобы помнили. Русский Душанбе|url=http://www.fergananews.com//articles/9099|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804044937/http://www.fergananews.com//articles/9099|archive-date=2020-08-04|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Фергана.Ру|language=ru}}</ref> The population during Soviet conquest and [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi revolts]] declined from an already meager 3,140 in 1920 to only 283 in 1924 with only 40 houses still standing.<ref name="Atkin-2020" /><ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /><ref name="Hughes-2017">{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Katherine|date=2017-05-22|title=From the Achaemenids to Somoni: national identity and iconicity in the landscape of Dushanbe's capitol complex|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02634937.2017.1319796|journal=Central Asian Survey|volume=36|issue=4|pages=511–533|doi=10.1080/02634937.2017.1319796|s2cid=149039948|issn=0263-4937|url-access=subscription}}</ref> To aid in the recovery, the Soviet authorities temporarily exempted much of the population from having to pay taxes. In 1923, the Soviets created Dushanbe's first telegraph link to [[Bukhara]], initiated its first railroad to [[Termez]],<ref name="Atkin-2020" /> and set up a telephone switchboard in 1924.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65068362|title=Dushanbe : ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡|publisher=Glavnai︠a︡ nauchnai︠a︡ redakt︠s︡ii︠a︡ Tadzhikskoĭ nat︠s︡ionalʹnoĭ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii|others=Dinorshoev, Muso.|year=2004|isbn=5-89870-071-4|location=Dushanbe|language=ru|chapter=Communication|oclc=65068362|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028115236/http://dushanbe.tj/img/ENS.doc|archive-date=28 October 2010}}</ref> On 12 August 1924, the first [[newspaper]] of the town, ''Voice of the East'' (Russian: ''Овози Шарк''), was published in Arabic and soon after a [[Russian language|Russian]]-language paper, ''Red Tajikistan'' (Russian: ''Красный Таджикистан''), began publication. [[Power station|Power plants]] and [[electricity]] were introduced to Dushanbe during this time. By the end of 1924, the first regular plane routes from Dushanbe came into operation, with one connection to [[Bukhara]] and later one to [[Tashkent]]. The [[post office]] was also set up that year.<ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /> Construction on the railroad commenced on 24 June 1926, and it was completed in November 1929, connecting Dushanbe with the [[Trans-Caspian railway|Trans-Caspian railroad]] and kickstarting economic growth.<ref name="Abdullaev-2018a" /> In 1925, the first boy's boarding school was constructed in the capital.<ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /> On 1 September 1927, the first [[Pedagogy|pedagogical]] college opened in Dushanbe and in November the motor road from Dushanbe to [[Kulob]] was completed.<ref name="Abdullaev-2018b" /> Tajiks from the countryside were given assistance and free land plots in the capital to increase its population and development.<ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /> === Capital of the Tajik SSR === [[File:Dushanabe WWIImonument.jpg|thumb|Dushanbe [[World War II]] monument]] The [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic]], previously the Tajik ASSR, separated from the Uzbek SSR in 1929, and its capital Dyushambe was renamed ''Stalinabad'' (Russian: {{lang|ru|Сталинабад}}; Tajik: {{lang|tg-Cyrl|Сталинобод}} ''Stalinobod'') for [[Joseph Stalin]] on 19 October 1929, incorporating the nearby villages of Shohmansur, Mavlono, and Sari Osiyo.<ref name="Abdullaev-2018a" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Times|first=Walter Duranty Wireless To the New York|date=1929-10-23|title=Tajikistan Capital Becomes Stalinbad – Change Follows Elevation to Soviet Federal State – Regime Starts by Declaring an Amnesty|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1929/10/23/archives/tajikistan-capital-becomes-stalinabad-change-follows-elevation-to.html|access-date=2020-07-31|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Abdullaev-2018b" /> In the years that followed, the city developed at a rapid pace.<ref name="Dushanbe twinning" /> The Soviets transformed the area into a center for [[cotton]] and [[silk production]], and tens of thousands of people relocated to the city. The population also increased with thousands of ethnic [[Tajiks]] migrating to Tajikistan from [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic|Uzbekistan]] following the transfer of [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarkand]] to the [[Uzbek SSR]] as part of [[national delimitation in Central Asia]].<ref name="Lonely Planet-2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/tajikistan/dushanbe/history|title=Dushanbe: History|publisher=Lonely Planet|access-date=10 May 2013|archive-date=10 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610054456/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/tajikistan/dushanbe/history|url-status=dead}}</ref> Industry during the time period was limited, focused on local production, although it had expanded by nine times since 1913 by 1940.<ref name="Atkin-2020" /><ref name="Davidzon-1983b" /> The first bus line began operating in 1930 and in 1938, [[Komsomol]] members constructed [[Komsomolskoye Lake]] in the city.<ref name="Вечёрка-2019" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=M.|first=Davidzon|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/11399951|title=Dushanbe, a guide|date=1983|publisher=Raduga|page=44|oclc=11399951}}</ref> <gallery class="center"> Tajik Parliament House, Dushanbe, Tajikistan.JPG|Former Supreme Soviet Building Dushanbe, Tajikistan - panoramio (19).jpg|Former Central Committee Building, demolished in 2021 </gallery> Many of these projects occurred under the 1925–1932 mayoralty of [[Abdukarim Rozykov]], one of the first mayors of Dushanbe, who sought to transform it into a "model communist city" through modernization and [[urban planning]]. [[Mikhail Kalitin]] continued the industrial development of Dushanbe, building the Komsomolskoye Lake and promoting industry in the city.<ref name="Shermatov-2017">{{Cite web|last=Shermatov|first=Gafur|title=Столица и ее градоначальники: кто был до Рустама Эмомали|url=https://news.tj/ru/news/tajikistan/society/20170210/stolitsa-i-ee-gradonachalniki-kto-bil-do-rustama-emomali|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213164625/https://news.tj/ru/news/tajikistan/society/20170210/stolitsa-i-ee-gradonachalniki-kto-bil-do-rustama-emomali|archive-date=13 February 2017|website=Asia-Plus}}</ref> Towards the end of this period, in the late 1930s, there were 4,295 buildings in Dushanbe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=История Душанбе|url=https://www.tajik-gateway.org/wp/regions/dushanbe/istoriya-dushanbe/|access-date=2020-09-25|website=Tajik Development Gateway на русском языке|language=ru}}</ref> During [[World War II|World War 2]], the population of Dushanbe and Tajikistan swelled with 100,000 evacuees from the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] that led to the deployment of 17 hospitals in the city.<ref name="Фергана-2020" /> The city's industry also greatly increased during the war, as the Soviets wanted to move [[critical infrastructure]] far behind enemy lines, and industries like textile manufacturing and food processing grew.<ref name="Atkin-2020" /> In 1954, there were 30 schools in the city; [[Avicenna Tajik State Medical University|a medical institute]] named after [[Avicenna]]; the Stalinabad Academy of Sciences; the [[Tajik National University|University of Stalinabad]], which was founded in 1947 and had 1,500 students;<ref>{{Citation|last1=DeYoung|first1=Alan J.|title=Higher Education in Tajikistan: Institutional Landscape and Key Policy Developments|date=2018|work=25 Years of Transformations of Higher Education Systems in Post-Soviet Countries: Reform and Continuity|pages=363–385|editor-last=Huisman|editor-first=Jeroen|series=Palgrave Studies in Global Higher Education|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-52980-6_14|isbn=978-3-319-52980-6|last2=Kataeva|first2=Zumrad|last3=Jonbekova|first3=Dilrabo|editor2-last=Smolentseva|editor2-first=Anna|editor3-last=Froumin|editor3-first=Isak|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the Stalinabad Pedagogical Institute for Woman, established on 1 September 1953.<ref name="CIA-2017">{{Cite web|title=CIA Information Report|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A003900400005-0.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122222841/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A003900400005-0.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2017|website=CIA}}</ref> In 1960, gas supply reached the capital through a gas pipeline opened from [[Kyzyl]] to [[Tumxuk]] to Dushanbe. On 10 November 1961, as part of [[de-Stalinization]], Stalinabad was renamed back to Dushanbe, the name it retains to this day.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Дюшамбе - Сталинабад - Душанбе|url=https://rus.ozodi.org/a/27357969.html|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Радио Озоди|date=11 November 2015 |language=ru}}</ref> In 1960, under the leadership of [[Mahmudbek Narzibekov]], [[Dushanbe Zoo|the first zoo]] was built in the city. Later in the decade the mayor developed a plan to end the housing shortage and provide free apartments.<ref name="Shermatov-2017" /> The [[Nurek Dam]], which was the tallest [[dam]] in the world at the time, was completed {{Convert|90|km|mi}} south east of Dushanbe during the 1960s. The [[Rogun Dam]], upstream from Nurek Dam, was started in that period as well. They were both [[megaproject]]s meant to showcase Soviet innovation and development in Tajikistan. However, while the Nurek Dam was completed, the Rogun Dam was cancelled in the 1970s because of [[Era of Stagnation|stagnating Soviet economic growth]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=H-Diplo Roundtable XX-46 on Laboratory of Socialist Development: Cold War Politics and Decolonization in Soviet Tajikistan {{!}} H-Diplo {{!}} H-Net|url=https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/discussions/4318596/h-diplo-roundtable-xx-46-laboratory-socialist-development-cold|access-date=2020-08-01|website=networks.h-net.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Perspectives {{!}} Light and nostalgia in Tajikistan {{!}} Eurasianet|url=https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-light-and-nostalgia-in-tajikistan|access-date=2020-08-01|website=eurasianet.org}}</ref> On 2 August 1979, the population of Dushanbe reached 500,000,<ref name="Abdullaev-2018b" /> and it had the highest population growth rate in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Davidzon-1983d">{{Cite book|last=M.|first=Davidzon|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/11399951|title=Dushanbe, a guide|date=1983|publisher=Raduga|page=15|oclc=11399951}}</ref> ==== Riots and unrest ==== {{Main|1990 Dushanbe riots}} [[File:RIAN archive 699865 Dushanbe riots, February 1990.jpg|thumb|February 1990 Riots in Dushanbe]] In the 1980s, environmental problems and crime began to increase. Mass violence, hooliganism, binge drinking, and violent assaults became more common. There was an attack on foreign students at the [[Agricultural University of Tajikistan|Agricultural Institute]] in 1987 and a riot in the Pedagogical Institute two years later. Increasing regionalism also destabilized the [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|SSR]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nourzhanov, Kirill|title=Tajikistan a political and social history|date=2013|publisher=ANU E Press|isbn=978-1-925021-16-5|page=156|oclc=984803513}}</ref> On 10–11 February 1990, 300 demonstrators gathered at the Communist Party Central Committee building after it was rumored that [[Government of the Soviet Union|the Soviet government]] planned to relocate tens of thousands of [[Armenians|Armenian]] refugees to [[Tajikistan]]. In reality, only 29 Armenians went to Dushanbe and were housed by their family members. However, the crowd kept growing in size to 3-5 thousand people; soon after, violence broke out. [[Martial law]] was quickly declared and troops were sent in to protect [[Ethnic minorities in Tajikistan|ethnic minorities]] and defend against vandalism and looting. The number of people protesting increased significantly, however, and they attacked the Central Committee building. The 29 [[Armenians]] were quickly evacuated on an emergency flight after shots were fired.<ref name="Nourzhanov-2013b" /> A few days after, and with looting still occurring throughout the city, demonstrators created the [[Provisional People's Committee]], or the Temporary Committee for Crisis Resolution, which put forward demands such as "the expulsion of Armenian refugees, the resignation of the government and the removal of the [[Communist Party of Tajikistan|Communist Party]], the closure of an aluminum smelter in western Tajikistan for environmental reasons, equitable distribution of profits from [[Agriculture in Tajikistan|cotton production]], and the release of 25 protesters taken into custody."<ref name="Nourzhanov-2013b" /> Many high-ranking officials resigned and the protector's goal of toppling the government was almost successful, but [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] troops moved into the city, declared the demands illegal, and rejected the resignation of the high-ranking officials. 16-25 people were killed in the violence; many if not most were Russian.<ref name="Nourzhanov-2013b">{{Cite book|last=Nourzhanov, Kirill|title=Tajikistan a political and social history|date=2013|publisher=ANU E Press|isbn=978-1-925021-16-5|pages=180–183|oclc=984803513}}</ref> The riots were largely fueled by concerns about housing shortages for the Tajik population, but they coincided with a wave of nationalist unrest that swept [[Transcaucasia]] and other Central Asian states during the twilight of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s rule.<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE0D8103EF930A25751C0A966958260 Ethnic rioting in Dushanbe], New York Times, 13 February 1990. Retrieved 18 October 2008</ref> After the increase of organized opposition from the [[Democratic Party of Tajikistan]] and [[Rastokhez]], [[glasnost]] by [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]], economic contraction, and increased opposition by regional elites, [[Qahhor Mahkamov]] disbanded the [[Communist Party of Tajikistan]] on 27 August 1991 and quit the party the next day. On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan's government declared independence from the Soviet Union.<ref name="Nourzhanov-2013">{{Cite book|last=Nourzhanov, Kirill|title=Tajikistan a political and social history|date=2013|publisher=ANU E Press|isbn=978-1-925021-16-5|chapter=The Rise of Opposition, the Contraction of the State and the Road to Independence|oclc=984803513}}</ref> === Capital of Tajikistan === {{See also|Tajikistani Civil War}} [[File:Рустами Эмомали (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Rustam Emomali]]]] Dushanbe became the capital of an independent Tajikistan on 9 September 1991.<ref name="Nourzhanov-2013" /> Iran, the United States, and Russia soon opened embassies in Dushanbe in early 1992.<ref name="Abdullaev-2018b" /> Dushanbe was controlled by the [[Popular Front of Tajikistan|Popular Front]]-supported government during most of the 1992–1997 [[Tajikistani Civil War]], although the Islamist and Democratic [[United Tajik Opposition]] managed to capture the capital in 1992 until 8000 Russian-backed and Uzbekistani-backed government troops regained control of Dushanbe.<ref name="Bleuer-2013">{{Cite book|last=Bleuer, Christian|title=Tajkistan: A Political and Social History.|date=2013|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-925021-15-8|pages=327–329|chapter=Epilogue: The Civil War of 1992|oclc=1076650077}}</ref> Most of the Russian population fled the capital during the violence of this time period while large amounts of rural Tajiks moved in; by 1993, more than half of the Russian population had fled.<ref name="Abdullaev-2018a" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} Chronology for Russians in Tajikistan|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f38e51e.html|access-date=2020-08-03|website=Refworld}}</ref> The factions during the civil war were organized primarily upon [[Regions of Tajikistan|regional]] lines.<ref name="Bleuer-2013" /> The war was ended by a 27 June 1997 armistice, administered by the UN, that guaranteed the opposition 30% of the positions in the government.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The long echo of Tajikistan's civil war|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/long-echo-of-tajikistan-s-civil-war/|access-date=2020-08-03|website=openDemocracy|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809210932/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/long-echo-of-tajikistan-s-civil-war/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2000, Dushanbe received internet access for the first time.<ref name="Abdullaev-2018b" /> In 2004, the UNESCO declared Dushanbe as a city of peace.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 May 2019|title=Tajikistan and UNESCO Cooperation|url=https://www.mfa.tj/en/main/view/5174/tajikistan-and-unesco-cooperation|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan}}</ref> [[Mahmadsaid Ubaidulloev]] was declared [[mayor of Dushanbe]] in 1996, after during the [[Tajikistani Civil War|civil war]] era many said he was in real control of the government.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Analysis: Dushanbe's Ex-Mayor One Of The Last Of Civil War Era|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-ubaidulloev-dushanbe-mayor-dismissal-civil-war-rahmon/28249742.html|access-date=2020-08-03|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=23 January 2017 |last1=Pannier |first1=Bruce }}</ref> He was the mayor of the capital for the longest term of any mayor, 21 years, until 2017.<ref name="Shermatov-2017" /> From independence, the city's economy has grown consistently up until the [[COVID-19 recession]].<ref name="Dushanbe-2020d">{{Cite web|title=/ Исполнительный орган государственной власти города Душанбе|url=https://www.dushanbe.tj/ru/rushdi-i-tisodiyot|access-date=2020-09-26|website=www.dushanbe.tj|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Пандемия нанесла огромный урон таджикской экономике. ВИДЕО|url=https://rus.ozodi.org/a/30706882.html|access-date=2020-09-26|website=Радио Озоди|date=5 July 2020 |language=ru}}</ref> In January 2017, [[Rustam Emomali]], current [[President of Tajikistan|President]] [[Emomali Rahmon]]'s son, was appointed [[Mayor of Dushanbe]], a move which is seen by some analysts as a step to reaching the top of the government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thepoliticon.net/analytics/275-tajikistan-regime-eternalization-completed.html|title=Tajikistan: regime eternalization completed?|date=26 January 2017|website=The Politicon|access-date=26 January 2017|archive-date=8 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108093820/http://thepoliticon.net/analytics/275-tajikistan-regime-eternalization-completed.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{clear left}}
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