Editing Elections in Syria (section)

== Ba'athist Syria ==
During [[Ba'athist Syria]], the government, led mainly by [[Hafez al-Assad]] and later his son [[Bashar al-Assad]], routinely conducted elections to the [[President of Syria|presidency]] and [[People's Assembly of Syria|legislature]]. However, independent observers unanimously regarded this to be a [[Sham election|sham process]]. According to [[Electoral Integrity Project]]'s 2022 Global report, elections in Ba'athist Syria were considered a "facade", and the country has one of the worst [[electoral integrity]] in the world alongside [[Comoros]] and [[Central African Republic]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Electoral Integrity Global Report 2019-2021 |url=https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/globalreport2019-2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209095338/https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/globalreport2019-2021 |archive-date=9 December 2022 |website=Electoral Integrity Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Garnett, S. James, MacGregor |first=Holly Ann, Toby, Madison . |date=May 2022 |title=2022. Year in Elections Global Report: 2019-2021. The Electoral Integrity Project. |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58533f31bebafbe99c85dc9b/t/62bb1188ea129d15fd58abac/1656426896778/Electoral+Integrity+Global+Report+2019-2021+0.1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722201335/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58533f31bebafbe99c85dc9b/t/62bb1188ea129d15fd58abac/1656426896778/Electoral+Integrity+Global+Report+2019-2021+0.1.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2022 |website=Electoral Integrity Project |publisher=University of East Anglia}}</ref>

The [[Syrian opposition]] boycotted elections that the Ba'athist government conducted during the [[Syrian civil war]].{{efn|Sources:<ref name="WaPo %">{{cite news|date=28 May 2007|title=Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|agency=[[Associated Press]]|location=Damascus|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html|access-date=13 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="Reuters %">{{Cite news|last=Yacoub Oweis|first=Khaleb|date=2007-05-17|title=Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad|work=[[Reuters]]|location=Damascus|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref><ref name="CBS %">Klatell, James (27 May 2007). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum"]. CBS News.</ref><ref>Chulov, Martin (14 April 2014). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win "The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win"] The Guardian.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |work=BBC News |title=Syria's Assad wins another term |date=29 May 2007 |access-date=13 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |date=28 May 2007}}</ref>}}{{efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cheeseman|first=Nicholas|title=How to Rig an Election|date=2019|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-24665-0|pages=140–141|oclc=1089560229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Norris|first1=Pippa|last2=Martinez i Coma|first2=Ferran|last3=Grömping|first3=Max|date=2015|title=The Year in Elections, 2014|url=https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015|journal=Election Integrity Project|language=en|quote=The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014.|access-date=21 May 2020|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415091339/https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Presidential and Legislative Elections|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190258658-e-23|last=Jones|first=Mark P.|editor3-first=Matthew S|editor3-last=Shugart|editor2-first=Robert J|editor2-last=Pekkanen|editor1-first=Erik S|editor1-last=Herron|date=2018|website=The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001|isbn=9780190258658|access-date=21 May 2020|quote="unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context."}}</ref><ref name=reuterscontested>{{cite news|last=Makdisi|first=Marwan|title=Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717|work=Reuters|date=16 July 2014|access-date=15 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSBREA3R0LH20140428?irpc=932 |title=Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages |work=Reuters |first1=Dominic |last1=Evans |date=28 April 2014 |access-date=13 March 2015}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |title=UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan |work=BBC News |date=15 May 2014 |access-date=13 March 2015}}</ref>}}

===1973 Constitution===
According to the [[1973 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria|Syrian constitution of 1973]], Syria was a form of [[one-party state]] where only the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Ba'ath Party]] was legally allowed to hold effective power. The presidential candidate was appointed by the parliament, on suggestion of the Baath Party, and needed to be confirmed for a seven-year term in a national single-candidate referendum.

Elections are officially designated as the event of "renewing the pledge of allegiance" to the [[Assad family]] and the state enforces voting as a compulsory duty on every citizen. Announcement of the results are followed by [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] rallies conducted across the country extolling the regime, wherein supporters declare their "devotion" to the President and celebrate "the virtues" of Assad dynasty.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Klatell |first=James |date=27 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Ian |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134014/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=13 April 2014 |title=The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621100122/https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> Although minor [[political parties|parties]] were allowed, they were legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party.

A series of presidential elections organized by the cadres of the Ba'ath Party has been held every seven years since [[Bashar al-Assad]]'s ascension to Presidency in 2000, which he regularly wins with overwhelming majority of votes.

In August 2011, President Assad signed Decree No. 101 on amending the General Elections Law. The Law stipulates that elections are to be held with public, secret, direct and equal voting where each Syrian voter, eighteen years and older, has one vote. The Law does not allow army members and policemen in service to participate in elections. It also provides for forming a higher judicial committee for elections, with its headquarters in [[Damascus]] to monitor the elections and ensure its integrity, in addition to forming judicial sub-committees in every Syrian province affiliated with the higher committee.<ref>President al-Assad Issues Legislative Decree on General Elections Law, SANA news agency</ref>

=== 2012 Constitution ===
Soon after the outbreak of the [[Syrian civil war]], the Syrian government approved the [[2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria|2012 Syrian constitution]] after [[2012 Syrian constitutional referendum|a constitutional referendum]]. Article 88 introduced presidential electoral limits to a maximum of one re-election.<ref name="SANA2012" /> Also, the constitution no longer specified the Ba'ath party as a vanguard, and instead allowed for a multi-party system.<ref name="SANA2012">{{Cite web |url=http://sana.sy/eng/370/2012/02/28/401178.htm |title=SANA Syrian News Agency - Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic Approved in Popular Referendum on February 27, 2012, Article 8 |access-date=October 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014034300/http://sana.sy/eng/370/2012/02/28/401178.htm |archive-date=October 14, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nonetheless, Ba'ath party remains the sole arbitrer in publicizing electoral lists for candidacy.<ref name="Awad">{{Cite journal |last=Awad, Favier |first=Ziad, Agnès |date=30 April 2020 |title=Elections in Wartime: The Syrian People’s Council (2016-2020) |url=https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/66949/RPR_2020_07.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |journal=Middle East Directions |publisher=European University Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129205045/https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/66949/RPR_2020_07.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=29 January 2021 |via=cadmus.eui.eu}}</ref>

By theoretically permitting non-Ba'athist activities, the government was able to mobilize recruits and militias from anti-opposition political parties at a time when regime's prospects for survival looked bleak in the [[Syrian civil war]].

Once [[Assad regime]] gained military edge in its favour, the state relinquished the accommodations and effectively restored the [[One-party system|one-party state]]. In March 2015, President Assad signed General Elections Law No.5, which replaced previous election laws.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Georges|first1=Nael|title=Election Law in Syria|url=http://legal-agenda.com/en/article.php?id=2999|publisher=The Legal Agenda|access-date=25 November 2016}}</ref> The government then pursued an intense Baathification campaign with ideological vigor, such as packing the legislature with [[Syrian Arab Army|Ba'athist army]] officers and commanders of [[Ba'ath Brigades]] since the [[2016 Syrian parliamentary election|2016 parliamentary elections]]. The government also disbanded non-Ba'athist militias and sidelined satellite parties of the [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] by increasing Ba'athist representation in the legislature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abdul-Jalil, Moghrabi |first=Murad, Yamen |date=3 July 2020 |title=Al-Assad attempts to boost "Ba'ath" vigor to tighten control |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2020/07/al-assad-attempts-to-boost-baath-vigor-to-tighten-control/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706222249/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2020/07/al-assad-attempts-to-boost-baath-vigor-to-tighten-control/ |archive-date=6 July 2020 |website=Enab Baladi}}</ref><ref name="Clapping">{{Cite web |last=Shaar, Akil |first=Karam, Samy |date=28 January 2021 |title=Inside Syria's Clapping Chamber: Dynamics of the 2020 Parliamentary Elections |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/inside-syrias-clapping-chamber-dynamics-2020-parliamentary-elections#footnote-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128162146/https://www.mei.edu/publications/inside-syrias-clapping-chamber-dynamics-2020-parliamentary-elections |archive-date=28 January 2021 |website=Middle East Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lucas |first=Scott |date=25 February 2021 |title=How Assad Regime Tightened Syria’s One-Party Rule |url=https://eaworldview.com/2021/02/how-assad-regime-tightened-syrias-one-party-rule/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225110507/https://eaworldview.com/2021/02/how-assad-regime-tightened-syrias-one-party-rule/ |archive-date=25 February 2021 |work=EA Worldview}}</ref>

As such, the United Nations continued to condemn Syrian elections, including its presidential elections in 2014 and 2021.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 May 2014 |title=Syrians in Lebanon battle crowds to vote for Bashar al-Assad |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |access-date=9 November 2017 |website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=16 July 2014 |title=Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |access-date=17 December 2016 |website=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422181511/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=22 April 2021 |work=Arab News}}</ref> These elections were only held in government-controlled territories due to the ongoing Syrian civil war. Overall, elections continue to be [[Sham election|sham process]], characterized by wide-scale [[Rigging election|rigging]], repetitive voting and absence of [[voter registration]] and verification systems.<ref name="Clapping" /><ref name="Awad" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Abdel Nour |first=Aymen |date=24 July 2020 |title=Syria’s 2020 parliamentary elections: The worst joke yet |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-2020-parliamentary-elections-worst-joke-yet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128170936/https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-2020-parliamentary-elections-worst-joke-yet |archive-date=28 January 2021 |website=Middle East Institute}}</ref>