Editing Emilio Aguinaldo (section)

==Philippine Revolution==
{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2018}}<!--Imus, Binakayan-Dalahican, Zapote Bridge, Spanish Cavite, and Retreat subsections have no citations; see [[WP:Summary style]]-->

[[File:Seal of the Magdalo.svg|thumb|left|upright|The seal of Emilio Aguinaldo as War Chief of the [[Magdalo (Katipunan faction)|Magdalo]] faction]]
[[File:General Emilio Aguinaldo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Aguinaldo in military uniform]]
[[File:Emilio Aguinaldo riding horse.jpg|thumb|286x286px|President Aguinaldo at [[Malolos, Bulacan|Malolos]], [[Bulacan]] wearing the [[Rayadillo]] uniform and in horseback, with the Aguirre sword, the trophy of [[Battle of Imus]]. Circa 1898.]]
On January 1, 1895, Aguinaldo became a [[Freemason]], joining Pilar Lodge No. 203, Imus, Cavite by the codename "Colon".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philippinemasonry.org/emilio-aguinaldo.html|title=Masons in Philippine History|publisher=Philippine Center for Masonic Studies|accessdate=May 26, 2022}}</ref>

On March 7, 1895, Santiago Alvarez, whose father was a ''Capitan Municipal'' (Mayor) of [[Noveleta]], encouraged Aguinaldo to join the "[[Katipunan]]", a secret organization led by [[Andrés Bonifacio]] that was dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish and the independence of the Philippines through armed force.{{sfn|Kalaw|1926|p=77}} Aguinaldo joined the organization and used the ''[[nom de guerre]]'' [[Magdalo (Katipunan faction)|Magdalo]] in honor of [[Mary Magdalene]]. The local chapter of Katipunan in Cavite was established and named ''Sangguniang Magdalo'', and Aguinaldo's cousin [[Baldomero Aguinaldo]] was appointed leader.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=79}}{{sfn|Guerrero |Schumacher |1998 |p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}

The Katipunan-led [[Philippine Revolution]] against the Spanish began in the last week of August 1896 in [[San Juan, Metro Manila|San Juan del Monte]] (now part of [[Metro Manila]]).{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=176}} However, Aguinaldo and other Cavite rebels initially refused to join in the offensive for lack of arms.{{sfn|Guerrero |Schumacher |1998 |p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} Bonifacio and other rebels were forced to resort to [[guerrilla warfare]], but Aguinaldo and the Cavite rebels won major victories in carefully planned and well-timed [[Pitched battle|set-piece battles]] and temporarily drove the Spanish out of their area.{{sfn|Guerrero |Schumacher |1998 |p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} On August 31, 1896, Aguinaldo started the assault by beginning as a skirmish to the full-blown revolt [[Kawit Revolt]]. He marched with his army of bolomen to the town center of Kawit. Prior to the battle, Aguinaldo strictly ordered his men not to kill anyone in his hometown. Upon his men's arrival at the town center, the guards, armed with Remingtons and unaware of the preceding events, were caught completely by surprise and surrendered immediately. The guns there were captured and armed by the Katipuneros, and the revolt was a major success for Aguinaldo and his men. Later that afternoon, they raised the [[Magdalo (Katipunan faction)|Magdalo]] flag at the town hall to a large crowd of people from Kawit that had assembled after it heard of the city's liberation.

The Magdalo faction of the Katipunan, which also operated in Cavite under Gen. Aguinaldo, used [[Flags of the Philippine Revolution#Magdalo faction|flags]] similar to those used by the Magdiwang faction and featuring a white sun with a red [[baybayin]] symbol for ''Ka''.

The symbol has recently been revived by a breakaway group of army officers to show the end of war with Spain after the peace agreement. The flag became the first official banner of the revolutionary forces and was blessed in a crowd celebrated at Imus. Aguinaldo referred to this flag in his proclamation of October 31, 1896: "Filipino people!! The hour has arrived to shed blood for the conquest of our liberty. Assemble and follow the flag of the Revolution – it stands for Liberty, Equality and Fraternity."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pinoystories.com/president-emilio-aguinaldo/|title=President Emilio Aguinaldo – Pinoy Stories|date=January 8, 2022|website=pinoystories.com}}</ref>

===Battle of Imus===
{{main|Battle of Imus}}In August 1896, as coordinated attacks broke out and sparked the revolution beginning in Manila. Aguinaldo marched from Kawit with 600 men and launched a series of skirmishes at Imus that eventually ended in open hostilities against Spanish troops stationed there. On September 1, with the aid of Captain [[Jose Tagle]] of Imus, they laid siege against Imus to draw the Spanish out. A Spanish relief column commanded by Brigadier-General Ernesto de Aguirre had been dispatched from Manila to aid the beleaguered Spanish defenders of Imus. Supported only by 100 troops and by cavalry, Aguirre gave the impression that he had been sent out to suppress a minor disturbance. Aguinaldo and his men counterattacked but suffered heavy losses that almost cost his own life. Despite the success, Aguirre did not press the attack, felt the inadequacy of his troops, and hastened back to Manila to get reinforcements. During the lull in the fighting, Aguinaldo's troops reorganized and prepared for another Spanish attack. On September 3, Aguirre came back with a much larger force of 3,000 men. When Spanish troops arrived at the [[Bridge of Isabel II|Isabel II Bridge]], they were fired upon by the concealed rebels. The Spanish force was routed, withdrawing in disorder with substantial casualties. Among the abandoned Spanish weapons was Aguirre's sword, which was carried by Aguinaldo in future battles.<ref>{{citation|author=Spencer Tucker|title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-951-1|chapter=Imus River, Battle of; September 4, 1896|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA303}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=October 2022|reason=This narrative bears little resemblance to the narrative in the cited source}}

===Battles of Binakayan–Dalahican===
{{main|Battle of Binakayan–Dalahican}}
Alarmed by previous siege, led by General Aguinaldo in Imus, in September 1896, Governor-General [[Ramón Blanco y Erenas]] ordered the 4th Battalion of Cazadores from Spain to aid him in quelling the rebellion in Cavite. On November 3, 1896, the battalion arrived carrying a squadron of 1,328 men and some 55 officers.<ref name="OLEud" /> Also, Blanco ordered about 8,000 men who recently came from [[Spanish Cuba|Cuba]] and Spain to join in suppressing the rebellion. Prior to the land attacks, Spanish naval raids were conducted on the shores of Cavite, where [[cannons]] bombarded the revolutionary fortifications in Bacoor, Noveleta, Binakayan, and Cavite Viejo. The most fortified locations in Noveleta were the Dalahican and Dagatan shores, defended by ''Magdiwang'' soldiers commanded by General [[Santiago Alvarez (general)|Santiago Alvarez]], and the adjacent fishing village of Binakayan in Kawit was fortified by ''Magdalo'' under General Aguinaldo. Spanish naval operations were determined to crush the fortifications in these areas, mainly because the lake around Dalahican was strategic by connecting to the interior of Cavite. Apart from defending Binakayan, the ''Magdalo'' soldiers also kept the lower part of Dagatan up to Cavite's border near [[Manila (province)|Manila province]].<ref name="9fehE" /> Between the barrios of Binakayan and Dalahican, the Spanish forces lost decisively since the Filipino rebels, led by Aguinaldo and Alvarez, routed them back to [[Cavite City|Cavite Nuevo]] in which the remaining Spanish troops would eventually surrender. The successful defenses of Binakayan and Dalahican was considered to be the first major victory of the Filipinos over a colonial power.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}}

===Battle of Zapote Bridge===
{{main|Battle of Zapote Bridge (1897)}}
Newly appointed Governor-General [[Camilo de Polavieja]], was now fully aware that the main weight of the revolution was in Cavite and so decided to launch a two-pronged assault to defeat the revolutionaries, led by Aguinaldo. He ordered General [[José de Lachambre]] with a much bigger force to march against [[Silang, Cavite|Silang]] to take on the ''Katipuneros'' from the rear, and he would engage the Filipinos head on. On February 13, 1897, Aguinaldo ordered soldiers to plant dynamite along the bridge and to place pointed bamboo sticks in the river beds below the bridge. Several hours later, 12,000 Spaniards began to cross the bridge. The trap was sprung, and the dynamite was detonated, which killed several Spanish troops and injured many more. The rebels then emerged from the bushes, fought hand to hand, and repelled consecutive waves of enemy troops charging across the river. [[Edilberto Evangelista]] was shot in the head and died. Cavite Province gradually emerged as the Revolution's hotbed, and the Aguinaldo-led ''Katipuneros'' had a string of victories there. After the battle, the demoralized Spanish soldiers retreated towards Muntinlupa.

===Spanish Cavite offensive and Battle of Perez Dasmariñas===
{{main|Battle of Perez Dasmariñas}}
While Polavieja was poised to strike at Zapote, another Spanish contingent is marching towards Aguinaldo's rear. On February 15, 1897, the Spaniards launched the powerful Cavite offensive to drive and crush Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo and his ''Magdalo'' forces that held numerous victories against the Spanish in the early stages of the revolution. Renewed and fully equipped with 100 cannons, 23,000 Spanish ''cazadores'' forces under Major General [[Jose de Lachambre]] saw town after town fall back to the Crown. Starting the offensive at Pamplona, Cavite, and Bayungyungan, Batangas, Lachambre's men later marched deep into the heart of Aguinaldo's home province.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}}

Having just won the [[Battle of Zapote Bridge (1897)|Battle of Zapote Bridge]], Aguinaldo turned his attention at the new Spanish threat and was determined to recapture most of Cavite. Aguinaldo decided to deploy his forces at Pasong Santol, a bottleneck of Perez Dasmariñas on the way to Imus, which rendered the Spanish immobile and served the revolutionaries by its natural defensive positions. On February 19, Silang fell to the Spanish juggernaut despite attempts by Filipino forces to defend and then to recover it. Nine days later, Spanish forces marched into Dasmariñas to reclaim the town. A week later, Spanish troops used artillery pieces well to attack again as they moved towards Aguinaldo's capital, Imus. Meanwhile, on March 22 at the [[Tejeros Convention]], Aguinaldo was voted ''in absentia'' as president of the reorganized revolutionary government. Colonel Vicente Riego de Dios was sent by the assembly to fetch Aguinaldo, who was in Pasong Santol. Aguinaldo refused to come and [[Crispulo Aguinaldo]], his older brother, was sent to talk to him. Crispulo greeted and talked to his brother and explained his purpose, but Aguinaldo was hesitant to leave his post because of the pending attack of the Spanish in Dasmariñas. Crispulo took over Aguinaldo's leadership in the battle, which had been stalemated since March 7, and Aguinaldo traveled to San Francisco de Malabon (now [[General Trias]], Cavite) to take his oath as president.<ref name=alvarez109 />

===Tejeros Convention===
[[File:Gen Aguinaldo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Aguinaldo as a [[Generalissimo]], Commander-In-Chief of all Philippine Forces.]]
{{main|Tejeros Convention}}
Conflict within the ranks of the Katipunan factions, specifically between the [[Magdalo (Katipunan faction)|Magdalo]] and [[Magdiwang (Katipunan faction)|Magdiwang]], led to the Imus assembly in Cavite Province, presided over by Bonifacio.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=178–182}} The rebels of Cavite were rumored to have made overtures to establish a revolutionary government in place of the Katipunan.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=182}} Though Bonifacio already considered the Katipunan to be a government, he acquiesced and presided over a [[Tejeros Convention|convention]] held on March 22, 1897, in Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon, Cavite. Aguinaldo was elected president, even though he was occupied with military matters in Imus and not in attendance. [[Mariano Trias]] was elected as vice-president, [[Artemio Ricarte]] as captain-general, Emiliano Riego de Dios as the director of war, and [[Andres Bonifacio]] as director of the interior. The results were questioned by [[Daniel Tirona]] for Bonifacio's qualifications for that position. Bonifacio was insulted and declared, "I, as chairman of this assembly, and as President of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan, as all of you do not deny, declare this assembly dissolved, and I annul all that has been approved and resolved."{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=178}} Regardless of the nullification, Aguinaldo traveled surreptitiously to San Francisco de Malabon where, on the evening of March 23, he took an oath assuming the office to which he had been elected as [[Generalissimo]] of the Philippine Islands.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Obc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34|magazine=The Philippine Review|volume=III|number=1–2 |year=1918|page=34|title=Andres Bonifacio|author=Epifanio de los Santos|authorlink=Epifanio de los Santos

}} (at the quoted statement dated Mat 24, 1897 by [[Artemio Ricarte]] on p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Obc7AQAAMAAJ&dq=aguinaldo+generalissimo&pg=PA46 46])</ref><ref name="alvarez109">{{cite book |last=Alvarez |first=Santiago V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-pwAAAAMAAJ |title=Recalling the revolution: memoirs of a Filipino general |publisher=University of Wisconsin, Center for Southeast Asian Studies |year=1992b |isbn=978-1-881261-05-6 |page=}}</ref>

===Biak-na-Bato and exile===
{{main|Republic of Biak-na-Bato|Pact of Biak-na-Bato|Hong Kong Junta}}
The [[Spanish Army]] launched an attack that forced the revolutionary forces under Aguinaldo into a retreat. On June 24, 1897, Aguinaldo arrived at Biak-na-Bato, [[San Miguel, Bulacan]], and established a headquarters there in what is now called "Aguinaldo Cave" in [[Biak-na-Bato National Park]]. In late October 1897, Aguinaldo convened an assembly of generals at Biak-na-Bato that decided to establish a constitutional republic. A constitution, patterned closely after the Cuban Constitution, was drawn up by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer and provided for the creation of a Supreme Council composed of a president, a vice president, a Secretary of War, and a Secretary of the Treasury. Aguinaldo was named president.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=183–184}}

[[File:The Hongkong Junta.jpg|thumb|right|Aguinaldo with the other revolutionaries on the Pact of Biak-na-Bato]]
In March 1897, [[Fernando Primo de Rivera, 1st Marquis of Estella]], the Spanish [[Governor-General of the Philippines]], had been encouraging prominent Filipinos to contact Aguinaldo for a peaceful settlement of the conflict. On August 9, the Manila lawyer [[Pedro Paterno]] met with Aguinaldo at Biak-na-Bato with a proposal for peace based on reforms and amnesty. In succeeding months, Paterno conducted [[shuttle diplomacy]], acting as an intermediary between de Rivera and Aguinaldo. On December 14–15, 1897, Aguinaldo signed the [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] under which Aguinaldo effectively agreed to end hostilities and to dissolve his government in exchange for amnesty and "₱800,000 (Mexican)" (Aguinaldo's description of the $MXN800,000{{efn|name=mex-us|1=The Mexican dollar at the time was worth about {{US$|0.50|1897|link=yes}}.<ref name="5tlLq" />{{sfn|Halstead|1898|p=[https://archive.org/details/storyphilippine00halsgoog/page/n191 <!-- quote=cents. --> 177]}} The ''[[Philippine peso fuerte|peso fuerte]]'' and the Mexican dollar were interchangeable at par.}} amount) as an indemnity.{{sfn|Zaide|1999|p=252}}<ref name="Aguinaldo1899ch2" /> The documents were signed on December 14–15, 1897. On December 23, Aguinaldo and other revolutionary officials departed for Hong Kong to enter [[Hong Kong Junta|voluntary exile]]. MXN$400,000,{{efn|name=mex-us}} representing the first installment of the indemnity, was deposited into Hong Kong banks. In exile, Aguinaldo reorganized his revolutionary government into the "Hong Kong Junta" and enlarged it into the "Supreme Council of the Nation".{{sfn|Zaide|1999|p=253}}

===Return to the Philippines===
[[File:Flag of the Philippines (1898–1901).svg|thumb|Flag of the [[First Philippine Republic]] 1898–1901.]]
[[File:Philippines Aguinaldo flag (obverse).svg|thumb|Aguinaldo's Revolutionary Flag ([[obverse]]).]]
[[File:Philippines Aguinaldo flag (reverse).svg|thumb|Aguinaldo's Revolutionary Flag (reverse).]]
On April 25, the [[Spanish–American War]] began. The war mostly focused on Cuba, but the [[US Navy]]'s [[Asiatic Squadron]] was in Hong Kong and, commanded by [[Commodore (USN)|Commodore]] [[George Dewey]], it sailed for the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, in the [[Battle of Manila Bay]], the squadron engaged attacked and destroyed the Spanish Army and Navy's Pacific Squadron and proceeded to blockade Manila.{{sfn|Zaide|1999|pp=255–256}} Several days later, Dewey agreed to transport Aguinaldo from Hong Kong to the Philippines aboard the [[USS McCulloch (1897)|USS ''McCulloch'']], which left Hong Kong with Aguinaldo on May 16 and arrived in Cavite on May 19.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=157}} Aguinaldo promptly resumed the command of revolutionary forces and besieged Manila.{{sfn|Zaide|1999|pp=256–257}}

===Dictatorial government and Battle of Alapan===
{{main|Dictatorial Government of the Philippines|Battle of Alapan}}
Aguinaldo had brought with him the draft constitution of [[Mariano Ponce]] for the establishment of federal revolutionary republic upon his return to Manila, but on May 24, 1898, in Cavite, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation upon the advice of his war counselor [[Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista]], and Aguinaldo assumed the command of all Philippine forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as titular dictator and power vested upon him to administer decrees promulgated under his sole responsibility. The dictatorial government was provisional in character until peace was established and unrestrained liberty attained.<ref name="BfSWM" /> [[Dean Worcester]] wrote, "although the title of 'president' was assumed by Aguinaldo, as more likely to be favourably considered in the United States than 'dictator', the tendency of his followers who had not been educated in Europe was to speak of and to regard him not as a president, but as an overlord holding all power in his hands."<ref>{{cite book|last=Worcester|first=Dean|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12077/12077-h/12077-h.htm#ch08|title=The Philippines: Past and Present|publisher=The MacMillan Company|date=1914|page=249}}</ref>

On May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo gathered a force of about 18,000 troops and fought against a small garrison of Spanish troops [[Battle of Alapan|in Alapan]], Imus, Cavite. The battle lasted from 10:00&nbsp;a.m. to 3:00&nbsp;p.m. After the victory at Alapan, Aguinaldo unfurled the [[Philippine flag]] for the first time and hoisted it at the Teatro Caviteño in Cavite Nuevo (present-day Cavite City) in front of Filipino revolutionaries and more than 300 captured Spanish troops. A group of American sailors of the US Asiatic Squadron also witnessed the unfurling. [[Flag Day]] is celebrated every May 28 to honor the battle.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}}

===Declaration of independence and revolutionary government===
{{main|Philippine Declaration of Independence|Revolutionary Government of the Philippines}}
On June 12, Aguinaldo promulgated the [[Philippine Declaration of Independence]] from Spain in his own [[Aguinaldo Shrine|mansion house]] in Cavite El Viejo, believing that declaration would inspire the Filipino people to eagerly rise against the Spaniards. On June 18, he issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government in which he also provided the organization of the local government and the establishment and the composition of the Revolutionary Congress.<ref name="7Iu6Y" />

On June 23, Aguinaldo issued a decree replacing his dictatorial government with a revolutionary government with himself as president upon the recommendation of his adviser [[Apolinario Mabini]]. The decree defined the organization of the central government and the establishment and the election of delegates to the Revolutionary Congress and to prepare the shift from a revolutionary government to a republic.<ref name="VGm8i" /><ref name="QD8cH" />
{{Clear}}

===Arrival of American troops<span class="anchor" id="Arrival of Americans"></span>===
{{main|Battle of Manila (1898)}}
By May 1898, Filipino troops had cleared Cavite of Spanish forces. In late June 1898, Aguinaldo, with the help of American allies, who were now landing in Cavite, was now preparing to drive the Spaniards out of Manila. The first contingent of American troops arrived in Cavite on June 30, the second under General [[Francis V. Greene]] on July 17, and the third under General [[Arthur MacArthur Jr]] on July 30.<ref name="VWiHW" /> By then, 12,000 US troops had landed in the Philippines.<ref name="4YcPs" />

Aguinaldo had presented surrender terms to Spanish [[Governor-General of the Philippines]] [[Basilio Augustín]], who refused them initially since he believed that more Spanish troops would be sent to lift the siege.<ref name="7f7mB" />{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=194}} As the combined forces of Filipinos and Americans were closing in, Augustín realized that his position was hopeless, secretly continued to negotiate with Aguinaldo, and even offered ₱1&nbsp;million, but Aguinaldo refused. When the Spanish [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] learned of Augustín's attempt to negotiate the surrender of his army to Filipinos under Aguinaldo, it was furious and relieved Augustín of his duties effective July 24. He was replaced by [[Fermin Jáudenes]]. On June 16, warships departed Spain to lift the siege, but they altered course for Cuba where a Spanish fleet was imperiled by the US Navy.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=115}}

In August 1898, life in [[Intramuros]], the walled center of Manila, had become unbearable, and the normal population of about 10,000 was now 70,000. Realizing that it was only a matter of time before the city fell and fearing vengeance and looting if the city fell to Filipino revolutionaries, Jáudenes, suggested to Dewey, through the Belgian consul, [[Édouard André (consul)|Édouard André]], for the city to be surrendered to the Americans after a short, "mock" battle. Dewey had initially rejected the suggestion because he lacked the troops to block Filipino revolutionary forces, which numbered 40 000, but when Merritt's troops became available, he sent a message to Jáudenes, agreeing to the mock battle. A bloodless mock battle had been planned, but Spanish troops opened fire in a skirmish that left six Americans and forty-nine Spaniards dead after Filipino revolutionaries, thinking that the attack was genuine, joined advancing US troops.<ref name="rDj6r" /> Besides the unplanned casualties, the battle went according to plan. The Spanish surrendered the city to the Americans, and it did not fall to the Filipino revolutionaries, who felt betrayed.<ref name="KZnSj" /> By the end of September, Aguinaldo's forces had captured over 9,000 Spanish prisoners, who were relieved of their weapons. They were generally free to move around but remained within the control of Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo did not know that on December 10, 1898, the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] had been signed; it transferred the Philippines from Spain to the United States for the sum of $20&nbsp;million.<ref name="TofP" />