Editing Enlightened absolutism (section)

== Major nations ==
Government responses to the [[Age of Enlightenment]] varied widely. In several nations with powerful rulers, called "enlightened despots" by historians, leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states.<ref>Stephen J. Lee, ''Aspects of European history, 1494–1789'' (1990) pp. 258–266</ref> In France the government was hostile, and the philosophers fought against its censorship. The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment's leaders.

[[Frederick the Great]], who ruled Prussia 1740–1786, was an enthusiast for French ideas{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}). Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government,{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to  make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit".<ref>Giles MacDonogh, ''Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters'' (2001) p. 341</ref> He wrote an essay on "Benevolent Despotism" defending this system of government.<ref>Reprinted in Isaac Kramnick, ed. ''The Portable Enlightenment Reader'' (1995)</ref>

Empress [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II of Russia]] sponsored the [[Russian Enlightenment]]. She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, especially [[Montesquieu]], in her [[Nakaz]], which was intended to revise Russian law. However, inviting the famous French philosopher [[Denis Diderot]] to her court worked out poorly.<ref>Isabel de Madariaga, "Catherine the Great" in H. M. Scott ed., ''Enlightened Absolutism'' (1990). {{page?|date=August 2023}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

[[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]], King of Spain from 1759 to 1788, tried to rescue his empire from decay through far-reaching reforms such as weakening the Church and its monasteries, promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce, modernizing [[agriculture]] and avoiding wars. The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility, and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities, and so resistance grew steadily. Consequently, Spain relapsed after his death.<ref>Nicholas  Henderson, "Charles III of Spain: An Enlightened Despot," ''History Today'', Nov 1968, Vol. 18  Issue 10, pp. 673–682 and Issue 11, pp. 760–768</ref><ref>Francisco Javier Guillamón Álvarez, "Institutional Reform and Municipal Government in the Spanish Empire in the Eighteenth Century." ''Itinerario'' 20.3 (1996): 109–123.</ref>

Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], ruler of Austria 1780–1790, was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out, and his regime became a comedy of errors.<ref>Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II", ''History Today'' (March 1991) 41:21–27</ref>

In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]], who was [[Joseph I of Portugal]]'s Secretary of State.<ref>Benjamin Otis Frick, ''The Enlightened Despotism of the Eighteenth Century in Portugal: The Marquis of Pombal'' (1902).</ref>  For a brief period in Denmark [[Johann Friedrich Struensee]] attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles. After issuing 1,069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms, his enemies overthrew him, and he was executed and quartered.<ref>Henry Steele Commager, "Struensee and the Enlightenment", ''The search for a usable past, and other essays in historiography'' (1967) pp. 349–623.</ref>