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Environmental gradient
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== Biotic interactions == Although environmental gradients are comprised gradually changing and predictable patterns of an abiotic factor, there is strong interplay between both biotic-biotic factors as well as biotic-abiotic factors. For example, species abundance usually changes along environmental gradients in a more or less predictable way. However, the species abundance along an environmental gradient is not only determined by the abiotic factor associated with the gradient but, also by the change in the [[biotic interaction]]s, like [[competition (biology)|competition]] and predation, along the environmental gradient.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rydgren|first1=Knut|last2=Økland|first2=Rune Halvorsen|last3=Økland|first3=Tonje|date=2003|title=Species response curves along environmental gradients. A case study from SE Norwegian swamp forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02220.x|journal=Journal of Vegetation Science|language=en|volume=14|issue=6|pages=869–880|doi=10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02220.x|issn=1654-1103|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Werner|first1=Earl E.|last2=McPeek|first2=Mark A.|date=1994|title=Direct and Indirect Effects of Predators on Two Anuran Species along an Environmental Gradient|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1937461|journal=Ecology|volume=75|issue=5|pages=1368–1382|doi=10.2307/1937461|jstor=1937461|issn=0012-9658|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
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