Editing Fall of Constantinople (section)

==Preparations==
When [[Mehmed II]] succeeded his father in 1451, he was 19 years old. Many European courts assumed that the young Ottoman ruler would not seriously challenge Christian hegemony in the [[Balkans]] and the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]].{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=60}} In fact, Europe celebrated Mehmed coming to the throne and hoped his inexperience would lead the Ottomans astray.{{sfnp|Crowley|2005}} This calculation was boosted by Mehmed's friendly overtures to the European envoys at his new court.{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=373}} But Mehmed's mild words were not matched by his actions. By early 1452, work began on the construction of a second [[fortress]] (''[[Rumelihisarı|Rumeli hisarı]]'') on the European side of the [[Bosphorus]],<ref name="WDL" /> several miles north of Constantinople. The new fortress sat directly across the strait from the ''[[Anadoluhisarı|Anadolu Hisarı]]'' fortress, built by Mehmed's great-grandfather [[Bayezid I]]. This pair of fortresses ensured complete control of sea traffic on the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]]{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=373}} and defended against attack by the [[Genoa|Genoese]] colonies on the Black Sea coast to the north. In fact, the new fortress was called ''Boğazkesen'', which means "strait-blocker" or "throat-cutter". The wordplay emphasizes its strategic position: in Turkish ''boğaz'' means both "strait" and "throat". In October 1452, Mehmed ordered [[Turakhan Beg]] to station a large garrison force in the [[Peloponnese]] to block [[Thomas Palaiologos|Thomas]] and [[Demetrios Palaiologos|Demetrios]] ([[despotes]] in Southern [[Greece]]) from providing aid to their brother [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] during the impending siege of Constantinople.{{NoteTag|While Mehmed II had been steadily preparing for the siege of Constantinople, he had sent the old general Turakhan and the latter's two sons, Ahmed Beg and Omar Beg, to invade the [[Morea]] and to remain there all winter also to prevent the despots Thomas and Demetrius from giving aid to Constantine XI.{{sfnp|Setton|1978|p=146}}}} [[Karaca Pasha]], the [[beylerbey]]i of [[Rumelia Eyalet|Rumelia]], sent men to prepare the roads from [[Edirne|Adrianople]] to Constantinople so that bridges could cope with the massive cannons. Fifty carpenters and 200 artisans also strengthened the roads where necessary.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=41}} The Greek historian [[Michael Critobulus]] quotes [[Mehmed II]]'s speech to his soldiers before the siege:{{sfnp|Kritovoulos|1954|p=23}}

{{blockquote | My friends and men of my empire! You all know very well that our forefathers secured this kingdom that we now hold at the cost of many struggles and very great dangers and that, having passed it along in succession from their fathers, from father to son, they handed it down to me. For some of the oldest of you were sharers in many of the exploits carried through by them—those at least of you who are of maturer years—and the younger of you have heard of these deeds from your fathers. They are not such very ancient events nor of such a sort as to be forgotten through the lapse of time. Still, the eyewitness of those who have seen testifies better than does the hearing of deeds that happened but yesterday or the day before.}}

===European support===
[[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Constantine XI]] swiftly understood Mehmed's true intentions and turned to [[Western Europe]] for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the [[Eastern Christianity|eastern]] and [[Western Christianity|western churches]] had to be paid. Since the [[East–West Schism|mutual excommunications]] of 1054, the [[Pope]] in Rome was committed to establishing authority over [[Eastern Orthodox Church|the eastern church]]. The union was agreed by the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] in 1274, at the [[Second Council of Lyon]], and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors had since been received into the [[Latin Church]]. Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos]] had also recently negotiated union with [[Pope Eugene IV]], with the [[Council of Florence#Eugene IV's eastern strategy|Council of Florence]] of 1439 proclaiming a ''Bull of Union''. The imperial efforts to impose union were met with strong resistance in Constantinople. A [[Propaganda|propaganda initiative]] was stimulated by anti-unionist [[Greek Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] partisans in Constantinople; the population, as well as the laity and leadership of the Byzantine Church, became bitterly divided. Latent [[ethnic hatred]] between Greeks and Italians, stemming from the events of the [[Massacre of the Latins]] in 1182 by the Greeks and the [[Sack of Constantinople]] in 1204 by the Latins, played a significant role. Ultimately, the attempted union between east and west failed, greatly annoying [[Pope Nicholas V]] and the hierarchy of the Roman church.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

In the summer of 1452, when [[Rumelihisarı|Rumeli Hisarı]] was completed and the threat of the Ottomans had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the union, which was declared valid by a half-hearted imperial court on 12 December 1452.{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=373}} Although he was eager for an advantage, [[Pope Nicholas V]] did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western kings and princes, some of whom were wary of increasing papal control. Furthermore, these Western rulers did not have the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of the weakened state of France and England from the [[Hundred Years' War]], Spain's involvement in the [[Reconquista]], the internecine fighting in the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and Hungary and Poland's defeat at the [[Battle of Varna]] of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city-states in northern Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account. [[Isidore of Kiev|Cardinal Isidore]], funded by the Pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archers.{{sfnp|Crowley|2005}} An accomplished soldier from [[Genoa]], [[Giovanni Giustiniani]], arrived in January 1453 with 400 men from Genoa and 300 men from Genoese [[Chios]].{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|pp=83–84}} As a specialist in defending walled cities, Giustiniani was immediately given the overall command of the defence of the land walls by the Emperor. The Byzantines knew him by the Latin spelling of his name, "John Justinian", named after the famous 6th century Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian the Great]].<ref name="NewsIT">{{Cite web |date=29 May 2011 |title=Σαν σήμερα "έπεσε" η Κωσταντινούπολη |url=https://www.newsit.gr/ellada/san-simera-epese-i-kostantinoypoli/1973279/ |website=NewsIT |access-date=31 October 2020 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030150/https://www.newsit.gr/ellada/san-simera-epese-i-kostantinoypoli/1973279/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships that happened to be present in the [[Golden Horn]] offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from [[Venice]], and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=81}}
From the [[Kingdom of Naples|Kingdoms of Naples]] and [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] arrived in Constantinople the [[condottiero]] [[Gabriele Orsini del Balzo]], duke of [[Venosa]] and count of [[Ugento]], together with 200 Neapolitan archers, who died fighting for the defense of the capital of the Byzantine Empire.{{sfnp|Lilie|2005|p=464}}

Meanwhile, in Venice, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The [[Venetian Senate|Senate]] decided upon sending a fleet in February 1453, but the fleet's departure was delayed until April, when it was already too late for ships to assist in battle.{{sfnp|Nicol|1993|p=}}{{page needed|date=June 2017}}{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=85}} Further undermining Byzantine morale, seven Italian ships with around 700 men, despite having sworn to defend Constantinople, slipped out of the capital the moment Giustiniani arrived. At the same time, Constantine's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended with the execution of the Emperor's ambassadors.{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=373}}<ref name="ThackerayFindling2012" /><ref name="Norwich1998" /><ref name="Somerwil-Ayrton2007" /><ref name="Roberts1973" /><ref name="Brownworth2009" />{{sfnp|Norwich|1995|p=415}}

[[File:Walls of Constantinople.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1|Restored Walls of Constantinople]]
[[File:Haliç zinciri (2).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|The [[boom (navigational barrier)|chain]] that closed off the entrance to the Golden Horn in 1453, now on display in the [[İstanbul Archaeology Museums]].]]

=== The Great Chain of the Golden Horn ===
Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the [[Golden Horn]], [[Emperor Constantine XI]] ordered that a [[boom (navigational barrier)|defensive chain]] be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help.{{sfnp|Nicol|1993|p=380}} This strategy was used because in 1204, the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople's land defences by breaching the [[Golden Horn Wall]], which faces the Horn. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall ([[Theodosian Walls]]). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the [[Blachernae]] district's wall was the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications consisted of a {{cvt|60|ft|m}} wide moat fronting inner and outer [[Battlement|crenellated walls]] studded with towers every 45–55 metres.{{sfnp|Spilling|2010|p=187}}

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===Strength===
[[File:Siege of Constantinople 1453 map-en.svg|thumb|left|Map of Constantinople and the dispositions of the defenders and the besiegers]]

The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totalling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners.{{NoteTag|According to Sphrantzes, whom Constantine had ordered to make a census, the Emperor was appalled when the number of native men capable of bearing arms turned out to be only 4,983. Leonardo di Chio gave a number of 6,000 Greeks.{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=85}}}} The population decline also had a huge impact upon the Constantinople's defense capabilities. At the end of March 1453, emperor Constantine XI ordered a census of districts to record how many able-bodied men were in the city and whatever weapons each possessed for defense. George Sphrantzes, the faithful chancellor of the last emperor, recorded that "in spite of the great size of our city, our defenders amounted to 4,773 Greeks, as well as just 200 foreigners". In addition there were volunteers from outside, the "Genoese, Venetians and those who came secretly from Galata to help the defense", who numbered "hardly as many as three thousand", amounting to something under 8,000 men in total to defend a perimeter wall of twelve miles.{{sfnp|Crowley|2013a|pp=95–110}} At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=32}} {{NoteTag|The Spanish [[Cristóbal de Villalón]] claims there were ' 60,000 Turkish households, 40,000 Greek and Armenian, 10,000 Jewish.{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=85}}}} Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople working for the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally [[monks]]. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery pieces, which in the end proved ineffective. The rest of the citizens repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers.

The Ottomans had a much larger force. Recent studies and Ottoman archival data state that there were some 50,000–80,000 Ottoman soldiers, including between 5,000 and 10,000 [[Janissary|Janissaries]],<ref name="pertusicadvol1" />{{page needed|date=June 2017}} 70 [[cannon]]s,{{sfnp|Lanning|2005|pp=139–140}}{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=}}{{page needed|date=June 2017}}<ref name="halilosmanimpklas" />{{page needed|date=June 2017}} and an elite infantry corps, and thousands of Christian troops, notably 1,500 Serbian cavalry that [[Đurađ Branković]] was forced to supply as part of his obligation to the Ottoman sultan{{sfnp|Buc|2020}}{{sfnp|Ivanović|2019}} — just a few months before, Branković had supplied the money for the reconstruction of the walls of Constantinople.{{sfnp|Buc|2020}}{{sfnp|Ivanović|2019}} Contemporaneous Western witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, provide disparate and higher numbers ranging from 160,000 to 300,000<ref name="pertusicadvol1" />{{page needed|date=June 2017}} ([[Niccolò Barbaro]]:<ref name="Barbaro" /> 160,000; the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi{{sfnp|Concasty|1955}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} and the Great Logothete [[George Sphrantzes]]:<ref name="sphrantzchron" />{{page needed|date=June 2017}} 200,000; the Cardinal [[Isidore of Kiev]]<ref name="isbesepistle" /> and the Archbishop of [[Mytilene]] Leonardo di Chio:<ref name="LeonardoChio" /> 300,000).<ref name="Ref-1" />

====Ottoman dispositions and strategies====
[[File:Dardanelles Gun Turkish Bronze 15c.png|thumb|The [[Dardanelles Gun]], cast by Munir Ali in 1464, is similar to [[bombard (weapon)|bombards]] used by the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople in 1453 (British [[Royal Armouries]] collection).]]

[[Mehmed II|Mehmed]] built a fleet (crewed partially by Spanish sailors from [[Gallipoli]]) to besiege the city from the sea.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=}}{{page needed|date=June 2017}} Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span from 110 ships to 430 (Tedaldi:{{sfnp|Concasty|1955}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} 110; Barbaro:<ref name="Barbaro" /> 145; Ubertino Pusculo:<ref name="Pusculo" /> 160, Isidore of Kiev<ref name="isbesepistle" /> and Leonardo di Chio:<ref name="sQMpP" /> 200–250; (Sphrantzes):<ref name="sphrantzchron" />{{page needed|date=June 2017}} 430). A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 110 ships comprising 70 large [[galley]]s, 5 ordinary galleys, 10 smaller galleys, 25 large rowing boats, and 75 horse-transports.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=44}}

Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized [[cannon]]s, but the range of some pieces they were able to field far surpassed the defenders' expectations.{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=374}} The Ottomans deployed a number of cannons, anywhere from 12 to 62 cannons. They were built at [[foundries]] that employed Turkish [[cannon]] founders and technicians, most notably Saruca, in addition to at least one foreign cannon founder, [[Orban]] (also called Urban). Most of the cannons at the siege were built by Turkish engineers, including a large bombard by Saruca, while one cannon was built by Orban, who also contributed a large bombard.<ref name="Steele" /><ref name="Hammer" />

Orban, a [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] (though some suggest he was [[Germans|German]]), was a somewhat mysterious figure.{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=374}} His {{convert|27|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}} cannon was named "[[Basilic (cannon)|Basilica]]" and was able to hurl a {{convert|600|lb|kg|adj=on}} stone ball over a [[mile]] (1.6&nbsp;km).<ref name="q6rsq" /> Orban initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, but they were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. Orban then left Constantinople and approached Mehmed II, claiming that his weapon could blast "the walls of [[Babylon]] itself". Given abundant funds and materials, the Hungarian engineer built the gun within three months at [[Edirne]].{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|pp=77–78}} However, this was the only cannon that Orban built for the Ottoman forces at Constantinople,<ref name="Steele" /><ref name="Hammer" /> and it had several drawbacks: it took three hours to reload; cannonballs were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks. The account of the cannon's collapse is disputed,<ref name="pertusicadvol1" />{{page needed|date=June 2017}} given that it was only reported in the letter of Archbishop [[Leonard of Chios|Leonardo di Chio]]<ref name="LeonardoChio" /> and in the later, and often unreliable, Russian chronicle of [[Nestor Iskander]].{{sfnp|Philippides|Hanak|2011|p=112}}

[[File:Conquest_of_Constantinople,_Zonaro.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Modern painting of Mehmed and the Ottoman Army approaching Constantinople with a giant bombard, by [[Fausto Zonaro]].]]
Having previously established a large foundry about {{convert|150|mi|km}} away, Mehmed now had to undertake the painstaking process of transporting his massive artillery pieces. In preparation for the final assault, Mehmed had an artillery train of 70 large pieces dragged from his headquarters at Edirne, in addition to the bombards cast on the spot.{{sfnp|Arnold|2001|p=111}} This train included Orban's enormous cannon, which was said to have been dragged from Edirne by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men.{{sfnp|Norwich|1997|p=374}}{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|pp=77–78}} There was another large bombard, independently built by Turkish engineer Saruca, that was also used in the battle.<ref name="Steele" /><ref name="Hammer" />

Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West and the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on 2 April 1453, the Monday after [[Easter]].

The bulk of the Ottoman army was encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from [[Anatolia]] under [[Ishak Pasha]] were stationed south of the [[Lycus (river of Constantinople)|Lycus]] down to the [[Sea of Marmara]]. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the ''Mesoteichion'', where the guns and the elite [[Janissary]] regiments were positioned. The [[Bashi-bazouk]]s were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under [[Zagan Pasha]] were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been destroyed over the marshy head of the Horn.{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|pp=94–95}}

The Ottomans were experts in laying siege to cities. They knew that in order to prevent diseases they had to burn corpses, sanitarily dispose of excrement, and carefully scrutinize their sources of water.{{sfnp|Crowley|2005}}

====Byzantine dispositions and tactics====
[[File:Fall-of-constantinople-22.jpg|thumb|Painting of the Fall of Constantinople, by [[Theophilos Hatzimihail]]]]

The city had about 20&nbsp;km of walls ([[Theodosian Walls|land walls]]: 5.5&nbsp;km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7&nbsp;km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5&nbsp;km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under [[John VIII Palaiologos|John VIII]]) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=39}} In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from [[Genoa]], 5 from [[Venice]], 3 from Venetian [[Crete]], 1 from [[Ancona]], 1 from [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], 1 from France, and about 10 from the empire itself.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=45}}

On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As Byzantine numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be guarded. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the ''Mesoteichion'', the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the [[Walls of Constantinople#Gate of Charisius|Charisian Gate]] (''Myriandrion''); later during the siege, he was shifted to the ''Mesoteichion'' to join Constantine, leaving the ''Myriandrion'' to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. {{ill|Girolamo Minotto|el|Τζιρόλαμο Μινόττο|es|Girolamo Minotto|fr|Girolamo Minotto|it|Girolamo Minotto}} and his Venetians were stationed in the [[Blachernae Palace]], together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and [[Leonard of Chios|Archbishop Leonardo of Chios]].{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=92}}

To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, who led Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the [[Walls of Constantinople#Gate of the Spring|Pegae Gate]] with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall.{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=92}} The sea walls were guarded more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at [[Stoudion]], a makeshift defence force of Greek monks to his left hand, and [[Orhan Çelebi|Prince Orhan]] at the [[Harbour of Eleutherios]]. Genoese and Catalan troops were stationed at the [[Great Palace of Constantinople|Great Palace]]; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. Finally, the sea walls at the southern shore of the [[Golden Horn]] were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under [[Gabriele Trevisano]].{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=93}}

Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city: one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], under the command of [[Loukas Notaras]] and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Venetian [[Alviso Diedo]] commanded the ships in the harbour.{{sfnp|Runciman|1965|p=94}} Although the Byzantines also had cannons, the weapons were much smaller than those of the Ottomans, and the [[recoil]] tended to damage their own walls.<ref name="LeonardoChio" /> According to [[David Nicolle]], despite many odds, the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is incorrect and the situation was not as one-sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest.{{sfnp|Nicolle|2000|p=40}} It has also been claimed that Constantinople was "the best-defended city in Europe" at that time.<ref name="bZgqW" />