Editing Franz Josef Land (section)

===Polar exploration===
[[Benjamin Leigh Smith]]'s expedition in 1880, aboard the [[barque]] ''Eira'', followed a route from [[Spitsbergen]] to Franz Josef Land,<ref name=b61 /> landing on [[Bell Island (Franz Josef Land)|Bell Island]] in August. Leigh Smith explored the vicinity and set up a base at Eira Harbour, before exploring towards [[McClintock Island]]. He returned the following year in the same vessel, landing at Grey Bay on George Land.<ref name=b62>Barr (1995): 62</ref> The explorers were stopped by ice at [[Cape Flora]], and ''Eira'' sank on 21 August. They built a cottage and stayed the winter,<ref name=b63>Barr (1995): 63</ref> to be rescued by the British vessels ''Kara'' and ''Hope'' the following summer.<ref name=b64>Barr (1995): 64</ref> These early expeditions concentrated their explorations on the southern and central parts of the archipelago.<ref name=b65>Barr (1995): 65</ref>

[[File:CapeFloraMeeting.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men shake hands in the midst of a snowfield, with a dog sitting nearby. Dark hills are shown in the background.|The Nansen–Jackson meeting at [[Northbrook Island|Cape Flora]], 17 June 1896 (a posed photograph taken hours after the initial meeting)]]

[[Nansen's Fram expedition|Nansen's ''Fram'' expedition]] was an 1893–1896 attempt by the Norwegian explorer [[Fridtjof Nansen]] to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east–west current of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Departing in 1893, ''Fram'' drifted from the [[New Siberian Islands]] for one and a half years before Nansen became impatient and set out to reach the North Pole on skis with [[Hjalmar Johansen]]. Eventually, they gave up on reaching the pole and instead found their way to Franz Josef Land, the nearest land known to man. They were thus able to establish that there was no large landmass north of this archipelago.<ref name=b72>Barr (1995): 72</ref> In the meantime the [[Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition]] set off in 1894, set up a base on [[Bell Island (Franz Josef Land)|Bell Island]], and stayed for the winter.<ref name=b65 /> The following season they spent exploring.<ref>Barr (1995): 66</ref> By pure chance, at [[Cape Flora]] in the spring of 1896, Nansen stumbled upon [[Frederick George Jackson]], who was able to transport him back to Norway.<ref name="Barr 1995: 76">Barr (1995): 76</ref> Nansen and Jackson explored the northern, eastern, and western portions of the islands.<ref name=b65 />
Once the basic geography of Franz Josef Land had become apparent, expeditions shifted to using the archipelago as a basis to reach the North Pole. The first such attempt was conducted by the [[National Geographic Society]]-sponsored American journalist [[Walter Wellman]] in 1898.<ref name="Barr 1995: 76"/> The two Norwegians, Paul Bjørvig and Bernt Bentsen, stayed the winter 1898–9 at [[Cape Heller]] on [[Wilczek Land]], but insufficient fuel caused the latter to die.<ref>Barr (1995): 78</ref> Wellman returned the following year, but the polar expedition itself was quickly abandoned when they lost most of their equipment.<ref>Barr (1995): 79</ref>  Italian nobleman [[Luigi Amedeo]] organized the next expedition in 1899, on the [[Jason (ship)|''Stella Polare'']].<ref>Barr (1995): 80</ref> They stayed the winter,<ref>Barr (1995): 81</ref> and in February and again in March 1900 set out towards the pole, but failed to get far.<ref>Barr (1995): 82</ref>

[[File:Stella Polare 1899.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''Stella Polare'' was trapped and threatened to sink. The crew were obliged to land with the utmost haste and to secure materials for building a dwelling.]]
[[Evelyn Baldwin]], sponsored by [[William Ziegler (industrialist)|William Ziegler]], organized the [[Ziegler Polar Expedition]] of 1901. Setting up a base on [[Alger Island, Russia|Alger Island]], he stayed the winter exploring the area, but failed to press northwards. The expedition was largely regarded as an utter failure by the exploration and scientific community, which cited the lack of proper management. Unhappy with the outcome, Ziegler organized a new expedition, for which he appointed [[Anthony Fiala]], second-in-command in the first expedition, as leader.<ref name=b88>Barr (1995): 88</ref> It arrived in 1903 and spent the winter. Their ship, ''America'', was crushed beyond repair in December and disappeared in January. Still, they made two attempts towards the pole, both of which were quickly abandoned.<ref>Barr (1995): 90</ref> They were forced to stay another year, making yet another unsuccessful attempt at the pole, before being evacuated in 1905 by the ''[[Terra Nova (ship)|Terra Nova]]''.<ref name=b92>Barr (1995): 92</ref>

The first Russian expedition was carried out in 1901, when the icebreaker ''[[Yermak (1898 icebreaker)|Yermak]]'' traveled to the islands.<ref>Barr (1995): 130</ref> The next expedition, led by hydrologist [[Georgy Sedov]], embarked in 1912 but did not reach the archipelago until the following year because of ice. Among its scientific contributions were the first snow measurements of the archipelago, and the determination that changes of the [[magnetic field]] occur in cycles of fifteen years.<ref>Barr (1995): 131</ref> It also conducted topographical surveys of the surrounding area.<ref>Barr (1995): 132</ref> Scurvy set in during the second winter, killing a machinist. Despite lacking prior experience or sufficient provisions, Sedov insisted on pressing forward with a march to the pole. His condition deteriorated and he died on 6 March.<ref>Barr (1995): 133</ref>

[[File:Ziegler polar expedition, America by moonlight cph.3a02345.jpg|thumb|left|''America'' anchored at Teplitz Bay]]
''Hertha'' was sent to explore the area, and its captain, I. I. Islyamov, hoisted a [[Flag of Russia|Russian iron flag]] at Cape Flora and proclaimed Russian sovereignty over the archipelago. The act was motivated by the ongoing [[First World War]] and Russian fears of the [[Central Powers]] establishing themselves there. The world's first Arctic flight took place in August 1914, when Polish aviator (one of the first pilots of the Russian Navy) [[Jan Nagórski]] overflew Franz Josef Land in search of Sedov's group. ''Andromeda'' set out for the same purpose; while failing to locate them, the crew were able to finally determine the non-existence of Peterman Land and King Oscar Land, suspected lands north of the islands.<ref name=b134>Barr (1995): 134</ref>