Editing Fred Zinnemann (section)

==Career as director==

===Early career===
Zinnemann worked in [[Weimar Republic|Germany]] with several other beginners ([[Billy Wilder]] and [[Robert Siodmak]] also worked with him on the 1929 feature ''[[People on Sunday]]'') after he studied filmmaking in France. His penchant for realism and authenticity is evident in his first feature ''[[Redes (film)|The Wave]]'' (1936), shot on location in Mexico with mostly non-professional actors recruited among the locals, which is one of the earliest examples of [[social realism]] in narrative film. Earlier in the decade, in fact, Zinnemann had worked with documentarian [[Robert Flaherty]], "probably the greatest single influence on my work as a filmmaker", he said.<ref name=Hillstrom/>

Although he was fascinated by the artistic culture of Germany, with its theater, music and films, he was also aware that the country was in a deep economic crisis. He became disenchanted with Berlin after continually seeing decadent ostentation and luxury existing alongside desperate unemployment. The wealthy classes were moving more to the political right and the poor to the left. "Emotion had long since begun to displace reason," he said.<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|16}} As a result of the changing political climate, along with the fact that [[sound film]]s had arrived in Europe, which was technically unprepared to produce their own, film production throughout Europe slowed dramatically. Zinnemann, then only 21, got his parents' permission to go to America where he hoped filmmaking opportunities would be greater.<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|16}}

He arrived in New York at the end of October 1929, at the time of the [[Stock market crash#Wall Street Crash of 1929|stock market crash]]. Despite the financial panic then beginning, he found New York to be a different cultural environment:<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|17}}
{{blockquote|New York was a terrific experience, full of excitement, with a vitality and pace then totally lacking in Europe. It was as though I had just left a continent of zombies and entered a place humming with incredible energy and power.<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|17}}}}

Shortly after, he took a Greyhound bus to Hollywood. One of Zinnemann's first jobs in Hollywood was as an [[extra (actor)|extra]] in ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front (1930 film)|All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' (1930). He said that many of the other extras were former [[Russian nobility|Russian aristocrat]]s and high-ranking officers who fled to America as refugees from the [[October Revolution]] in 1917 and the ensuing [[Red Terror]].<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|23}}

He was twenty-two but he said he felt older than the forty-year-olds in Hollywood. But he was jubilant because he was then certain that "this was the place one could breathe free and belong."<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|18}} But after a few years he became disillusioned with the limited talents of Hollywood's elites. His first directorial effort was the Mexican cultural protest film, ''The Wave'', in Alvarado, Mexico. He established residence in North Hollywood with [[Henwar Rodakiewicz]], [[Gunther von Fritsch]] and [[Ned Scott]], all fellow contributors to the Mexican project.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenedscottarchive.com/ned-scott-biography.html|title=ned scott biography|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|website=www.thenedscottarchive.com|access-date=August 3, 2018|archive-date=June 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622072432/http://www.thenedscottarchive.com/ned-scott-biography.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> 

===1940s===
[[File:Montgomery Clift in The Search trailer.jpg|thumb|Montgomery Clift in his debut film, ''The Search'' (1948)]]
After some directing success with some short films, he graduated to features in 1942, turning out two B mysteries, ''[[Kid Glove Killer]] and'' ''[[Eyes in the Night]]'' before getting his big break with ''[[The Seventh Cross (film)|The Seventh Cross]]'' (1944), starring [[Spencer Tracy]], which became his first hit. The film was based on [[Anna Seghers]]' novel and, while filmed entirely on the [[MGM]] [[backlot]], made realistic use of refugee German actors in even the smallest roles. The central character—an escaped prisoner played by Tracy—is seen as comparatively passive and fatalistic. He is, however, the subject of heroic assistance from anti-Nazi Germans. In a sense, the most dynamic character of the film is not the Tracy character but a humble German worker played by [[Hume Cronyn]], who changes from Nazi sympathizer to active opponent of the regime as he aids Tracy.

After World War II, Zinnemann learned that both of his parents had been murdered in the [[Holocaust]].<ref name=Nolletti/>{{rp|86}} He was frustrated by his studio contract, which dictated that he did not have a choice in directing films like ''[[Little Mister Jim]]'' (1946) and ''[[My Brother Talks to Horses]]'' (1947) despite his lack of interest in their subject matter.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiK_3d6a7DQC|title=Fred Zinnemann: Interviews|first=Fred|last=Zinnemann|date=August 3, 2018|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|access-date=August 3, 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781578066988}}</ref> However, his next film, ''[[The Search]]'' (1948), won an Oscar for screenwriting and secured his position in the Hollywood establishment. Shot in war-ravaged Germany, the film stars [[Montgomery Clift]] in his screen debut as a [[G.I. (military)|GI]] who cares for a lost Czech boy traumatized by the war. It was followed by ''[[Act of Violence]]'' (1948), a gritty [[film noir]] starring [[Van Heflin]] as a haunted POW, [[Robert Ryan]] as his hot-tempered former friend, [[Janet Leigh]] as Heflin's wife, and [[Mary Astor]] as a sympathetic prostitute. Zinnemann considered ''Act of Violence'' the first project in which he "felt comfortable knowing exactly what I wanted and exactly how to get it."<ref name="books.google.com"/>

===1950s===
''[[The Men (1950 film)|The Men]]'' (1950) stars [[Marlon Brando]] as a [[paraplegic]] war veteran. It was Brando's first film. Zinnemann filmed many scenes in a California hospital where real patients served as extras. It was followed by ''[[Teresa (1951 film)|Teresa]]'' (1951), starring [[Pier Angeli]].

Perhaps Zinnemann's best-known work is ''[[High Noon]]'' (1952), one of the first 25 American films chosen in 1989 for the [[National Film Registry]]. With its psychological and moral examinations of its lawman hero Marshall Will Kane, played by [[Gary Cooper]] and its innovative chronology whereby screen time approximated the 80-minute countdown to the confrontational hour, the film broke the mold of the formulaic western. Working closely with cinematographer and longtime friend [[Floyd Crosby]], he shot without filters, giving the landscape a harsh "newsreel" quality that clashed with the more painterly cinematography of John Ford's westerns.<ref>J. E. Smyth, "Fred Zinnemann and the Cinema of Resistance", Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2014. Pages 103–04.</ref> During production he established a strong rapport with [[Gary Cooper]], photographing the aging actor in many tight close-ups which showed him sweating, and at one point, even crying on screen.

Screenwriter [[Carl Foreman]] apparently intended ''[[High Noon]]'' to be an allegory of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s vendetta against alleged Communists. However, Zinnemann disagreed, insisting, late in life, that the issues in the film, for him, were broader, and were more about conscience and independent, uncompromising fearlessness. He says, "''High Noon'' is "not a Western, as far as I'm concerned; it just happens to be set in the Old West."

Film critic [[Stephen Prince]] suggests that the character of Kane actually represents Zinnemann, who tried to create an atmosphere of impending threat on the horizon, a fear of potential "fascism", represented by the gang of killers soon arriving. Zinnemann explained the general context for many of his films: "One of the crucial things today [is] trying to preserve our civilization."<ref name=Nolletti/>{{rp|86}}

Prince adds that Zinnemann, having learned that both his parents were murdered in the Holocaust, wanted Kane willing to "fight rather than run", unlike everyone else in town. As a result, "Zinnemann allies himself" with the film's hero.<ref name=Nolletti>Nolletti, Arthur, ed. ''The Films of Fred Zinnemann: Critical Perspectives'', State Univ. of N.Y. Press (1999)</ref>{{rp|86}} Zinnemann explains the theme of the film and its relevance to modern times:

{{blockquote|I saw it as a great movie yarn, full of enormously interesting people ... only later did it dawn on me that this was ''not'' a regular Western myth. There was something timely{{snd}}and timeless{{snd}}about it, something that had a direct bearing on life today. To me it was the story of a man who must make a decision according to his conscience. His town{{snd}}symbol of a democracy gone soft{{snd}}faces a horrendous threat to its people's way of life. Determined to resist, and in deep trouble, he moves all over the place looking for support but finding that there is nobody who will help him; each has a reason of his own for not getting involved. In the end, he must meet his chosen fate all by himself, his town's doors and windows firmly locked against him. It is a story that still happens everywhere, every day.<ref name=Zinnemann>Fred Zinnemann, ''A Life in the Movies. An Autobiography'', Macmillan Books, (1992)</ref>{{rp|96–97}}}}

For his screen adaptation of the play ''[[The Member of the Wedding]]'' (1952), Zinnemann chose [[Julie Harris (American actress)|Julie Harris]] as the film's 12-year-old [[protagonist]], although she was by then 26 years old. Two years earlier Harris had created the role on Broadway just as the two other leading actors, [[Ethel Waters]] and [[Brandon deWilde]], had.<ref>[http://www.thedigitalbits.com/item/member-of-the-wedding-bd ''The Member of the Wedding'' review], ''The Digital Bits'', July 28, 2016</ref>

Zinnemann's next film, ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' (1953), based on the novel by [[James Jones (author)|James Jones]], was nominated for 13 [[Academy Awards]] and would go on to win 8, including Best Picture and Best Director. Zinnemann fought hard with producer [[Harry Cohn]] to cast [[Montgomery Clift]] as the character of Prewitt, although [[Frank Sinatra]], who was at the lowest point of his popularity, cast himself in the role of "Maggio" against Zinnemann's wishes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiK_3d6a7DQC&pg=PA30|title=Fred Zinnemann: Interviews|first=Fred|last=Zinnemann|date=August 3, 2018|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|access-date=August 3, 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781578066988}}</ref> Sinatra would later win an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor. ''From Here to Eternity'' also featured [[Deborah Kerr]], best known for prim and proper roles, as a philandering Army wife. [[Donna Reed]] played the role of Alma "Lorene" Burke, a prostitute and mistress of Montgomery Clift's character which earned her an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for 1953.

[[File:Don Murray - Eva Marie Saint - 1957.jpg|thumb|Don Murray and [[Eva Marie Saint]] in ''A Hatful of Rain'' (1957)]]
In ''[[Oklahoma (1955 film)|Oklahoma!]]'' (1955), Zinnemann's version of the [[Richard Rodgers|Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II|Hammerstein]] musical, the wide screen format [[Todd-AO]] made its debut, as did the film's young star, [[Shirley Jones]]. It was also an expression of Zinnemann's continued faith and optimism about America, with its energy and exuberance.<ref name=Nolletti/>{{rp|3}}

His next film was ''[[A Hatful of Rain]]'' (1957), starring [[Don Murray (actor)|Don Murray]], [[Eva Marie Saint]] and [[Anthony Franciosa]], and was based on the play by [[Michael V. Gazzo]]. It is a drama story about a young married man with a secret morphine addiction who tries to quit and suffers through painful withdrawal symptoms. The film was a risk for Zinnemann, since movie depictions of drug addiction and withdrawal were rare in the 1950s.<ref name=Nolletti/>{{rp|3}}

Zinnemann rounded out the 1950s with ''[[The Nun's Story (film)|The Nun's Story]]'' (1959), casting [[Audrey Hepburn]] in the role of Sister Luke, a nun who eventually gives up the religious life to join the Belgian resistance in the [[Second World War]]. Based on a popular novel by [[Kathryn Hulme]] (inspired by the experiences of [[Marie Louise Habets]]), the film depicts a young woman's struggles with convent life in Belgium and the Congo. Hepburn, who gave up the chance to play [[Anne Frank]] in order to work on ''The Nun's Story'', considered the film to be her best and most personal work. Zinnemann's style of cutting from close-up to close-up was heavily influenced by Carl Theodor Dreyer's ''[[The Passion of Joan of Arc]]'' (1928), his favorite film. He was grateful that Hepburn was easy to work with:
{{blockquote|I have never seen anyone more disciplined, more gracious or more dedicated to her work than Audrey. There was no ego, no asking for extra favors; there was the greatest consideration for her co-workers.<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|166}}}}

===1960s===
''[[The Sundowners (1960 film)|The Sundowners]]'' (1960), starring [[Robert Mitchum]] and [[Deborah Kerr]] as an [[Australian outback]] husband and wife, led to more Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Actress (Kerr) and Best Supporting Actress ([[Glynis Johns]]), but won none. ''[[Behold a Pale Horse (film)|Behold A Pale Horse]]'' (1964) was a post-[[Spanish Civil War]] epic based on the book ''[[Killing a Mouse on Sunday]]'' by [[Emeric Pressburger]] and starred [[Gregory Peck]], [[Anthony Quinn]] and [[Omar Sharif]], but was both a critical and commercial flop; Zinnemann would later admit that the film "didn't really come together."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiK_3d6a7DQC&pg=PA153|title=Fred Zinnemann: Interviews|first=Fred|last=Zinnemann|date=August 3, 2018|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|access-date=August 3, 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781578066988}}</ref>

In 1965 he was a member of the jury at the [[4th Moscow International Film Festival]].<ref name="Moscow1965">{{cite web|url=http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1965 |title=4th Moscow International Film Festival (1965) |access-date=December 2, 2012 |work=MIFF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116145645/http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1965 |archive-date=January 16, 2013 }}</ref>

Zinnemann's fortunes changed once again with ''[[A Man for All Seasons (1966 film)|A Man for All Seasons]]'' (1966), scripted by [[Robert Bolt]] from his own play and starring [[Paul Scofield]] as [[Sir Thomas More]], portraying him as a man driven by conscience to his ultimate fate. The film went on to win six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor (Scofield) and Best Director, Zinnemann's second such Oscar to date. The film was also entered into the [[5th Moscow International Film Festival]].<ref name="Moscow1967">{{cite web|url=http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1967 |title=5th Moscow International Film Festival (1967) |access-date=December 15, 2012 |work=MIFF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116194759/http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1967 |archive-date=January 16, 2013 }}</ref>

After this, Zinnemann was all set to direct an adaptation of ''[[Man's Fate]]'' for [[MGM]]. However, the project was shut down in 1969, and the studio attempted to hold Zinnemann responsible for at least $1 million of the $3.5 million that had already been spent on pre-production. In protest, Zinnemann filed a lawsuit against the studio, and it would be four years before he would make his next film.<ref name="Zinnemann dies at 89">{{cite news| url=https://www.variety.com/vstory/VR1117342690.html?categoryid=38&cs=1 | work=Variety | first1=Timothy M. | last1=Gray | first2=Richard | last2=Natale | title=Zinnemann dies at 89 | date=March 17, 1997}}</ref>

===1970s===
By the early 1970s, Zinnemann had been out of work since the cancellation of ''Man's Fate''; he believed it had "marked the end of an era in picture making and the dawn of a new one, when lawyers and accountants began to replace showmen as head of the studios and when a handshake was a handshake no longer."<ref name="Zinnemann dies at 89"/> However, [[Universal Pictures|Universal]] then offered him the chance to direct ''[[The Day of the Jackal (film)|The Day of the Jackal]]'' (1973), based on the best-selling suspense novel by [[Frederick Forsyth]]. The film starred [[Edward Fox (actor)|Edward Fox]] as an English assassin hired to kill French president [[Charles de Gaulle]], and [[Michael Lonsdale]] as the French detective charged with stopping him. Zinnemann was intrigued by the opportunity to direct a film in which the audience would already be able to guess the ending (the Jackal failing his mission), and was pleased when it ultimately became a hit with the public.<ref>Arthur Nolletti, ed., [https://books.google.com/books?id=X2rpAGzeD-cC&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20 The Films of Fred Zinnemann: Critical Perspectives], SUNY Press, 1999, p. 20</ref>

''The Day of the Jackal'' was followed four years later by ''[[Julia (1977 film)|Julia]]'' (1977), based on a story in the book ''[[Pentimento: A Book of Portraits]]'' by [[Lillian Hellman]]. The film starred [[Jane Fonda]] as a young Hellman and [[Vanessa Redgrave]] as her best friend Julia, an American [[Beneficiary|heiress]] who forsakes the safety and comfort of both her homeland and great wealth to devote her life with fatal consequences to the [[Austrian Resistance]] to [[Nazism]]. The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards and won three, for Best Screenplay ([[Alvin Sargent]]), Best Supporting Actor ([[Jason Robards]]), and Best Supporting Actress ([[Vanessa Redgrave]]); Zinnemann thought that Fonda's acting was extraordinary enough to merit consideration for an award as well.<ref name=Zinnemann/>{{rp|226}}

===1980s===
Zinnemann's final film was ''[[Five Days One Summer]]'' (1982), filmed in [[Switzerland]] and based on the short story ''Maiden, Maiden'' by [[Kay Boyle]]. It starred [[Sean Connery]] and [[Betsy Brantley]] as a "couple" vacationing in the [[Alps]] in the 1930s, and a young [[Lambert Wilson]] as a mountain-climbing guide who grows heavily suspicious of their relationship. The film was both a critical and commercial flop, although Zinnemann would be told by various critics in later years that they considered it an underrated achievement.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2rpAGzeD-cC&pg=PA34|title=The Films of Fred Zinnemann: Critical Perspectives|first=Arthur|last=Nolletti|date=June 24, 1999|publisher=SUNY Press|access-date=August 3, 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780791442265}}</ref> Zinnemann blamed the film's critical and commercial failure for his retirement from filmmaking: "I'm not saying it was a good picture. But there was a degree of viciousness in the reviews. The pleasure some people took in tearing down the film really hurt."<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-06-21-ca-1509-story.html | work=Los Angeles Times | first=David | last=Gritten | title=Movies : A Lion in His Winter : At 85, Fred Zinnemann looks back on a life in film; his anecdote-rich autobiography earns the rave reviews his last movie didn't | date=June 21, 1992}}</ref>