Editing Frontier (section)

== South America ==
[[File:VIRREINATOsur.png|thumb|350px|right|''De facto'' Spanish territories and indigenous territories around 1800. [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] is shown in blue while the [[Captaincy General of Chile]] is shown in green.]]
=== Argentina ===
The southern indigenous frontier of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] was the southern limit into which the viceyolty could exert its rule. Beyond this lay territories<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.redalyc.org/html/127/12701208/|chapter=Periferia y frontera al sur del en el sur del virreinato del Perú|language=es|last=Gascón|first=Margarita|year=2001|title=La transición de periferia a frontera : mendoza en el siglo XVII.|journal=Andes. Antropología e Historia|publisher=Andes|pages=4–6|access-date=June 15, 2019|issn=0327-1676}}</ref> ''de facto'' controlled by indigenous peoples who inhabited the [[Pampas]] and [[Patagonia]]. These group were mainly the [[Tehuelche people|Tehuelche]], [[Pehuenche]], [[Mapuche]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marimán, P.; Caniuqueo, S.; Millalén, J.; Levil, R.|title=¡…Escucha, winka…!: Cuatro ensayos de Historia Nacional Mapuche y un epílogo sobre el futuro|year=2006|publisher=[[LOM Ediciones|LOM]]|isbn=9562828514|location=Chile|language=es}}</ref> and the [[Ranquel]]es. 
[[File:Indios_pampas_(Serie_Ibarra)_-_Carlos_Morel.jpg|thumbnail|Carlos Morel, Indios pampas (Serie Ibarra). Siglo XIX. Visible: 25 x 28 cm Llitografía: 21 x 26,5 cm, litografía sobre papel|alt=]]
Various military campaigns and peace treaties were arranged by the Spanish in order to either stop indigenous incursions in Spanish lands or to advance the frontier into indigenous territory.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10609160903336101?journalCode=ccla20|title=Mujeres, rehenes y secretarios : mediadores indígenas en la frontera sur del Río de la Plata durante el período hispánico|last=Roulet|first=Florencia|date=December 2009|journal=Colonial Latin America Review|volume=18|language=es|issue=3|access-date=May 10, 2009|page=303|issn=1466-1802|doi=10.1080/10609160903336101|s2cid=161223604|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In the 1870s, to counter the cattle raids (and the native peoples on horseback), Argentina constructed a deep trench, called [[Zanja de Alsina]], to prevent cattle from being driven west and establish a boundary to the raiding tribes in the Pampas. 

Under General [[Julio Argentino Roca]], the [[Conquest of the Desert]] extended Argentine power into [[Patagonia]].

===Bolivia===
{{expand section|date=January 2024}}
For long time a frontier existed east of [[Tarija]] in southeastern Bolivia.<ref name=guillermina>{{Cite journal |title=Chiriguanos: la construcción de un estereotipo en la política colonizadora del sur andino |journal=Memoria Americana |last=Oliveto |first=Guillermina |url=https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S1851-37512010000100002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt |volume=18 |issue=2 |year=2010 |trans-title=Chiriguanos: southern andes colonizing policy and the construction of a stereotype |language=es}}</ref><ref name=aguayaceite>{{Cite journal |title=Como agua y aceite. Las alianzas guerreras entre tobas y chiriguanos en el siglo XIX |journal=Indiana |last=Combès |first=Isabelle|year=2014 |volume=31 |pages=321–349 |language=es}}</ref> Starting in the late 16th century the Spanish saw the tribes inhabiting the eastern jungles, and the "[[Ava Guaraní people|Chiriguanos]]" in particular, as a threat.<ref name=guillermina/> This frontier attracted [[Afro-Bolivians|Maroons]] and indigenous individuals who escaped Spanish rule in the [[Real Audiencia of Charcas]].<ref name=aguayaceite/> The frontier remained remakably stable until the late 18th century when the Spanish made some advances into the Chiriguano territory.<ref name=aguayaceite/> Later, in the second half of the 19th century a more definitive advance begun on the Chiriguano lands with the last resistance being crushed in the early 20th century.<ref name=aguayaceite/>

===Chile===
{{see also|Arauco War|La Frontera, Chile|Mapuche conflict|Malón}}
The [[Destruction of the Seven Cities]] (1599–1604) led to the formation of a frontier called [[La Frontera, Chile|La Frontera]], with the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] ruling north of [[Biobío River]] and [[Mapuche]] retaining independence south of the said river. Within this frontier the city of [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]] assumed the role of "military capital" of Spanish-ruled Chile.<ref name=encicloreg2006>{{cite book|title=Enciclopedia regional del Bío Bío|page=44|language=es|date=2006|isbn=956-16-0404-3|publisher=[[Pehuén Editores]]}}</ref> This informal role was given by the establishment of the Spanish [[Army of Arauco]] in the city which was financed by a payments of silver from [[Potosí]] called [[Real Situado]].<ref name=encicloreg2006/> Santiago located at some distance from the war zone remained the political capital since 1578.<ref name=encicloreg2006/>
[[File:Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg|thumb|Chilean [[huaso]]s, 1836, by [[Johann Moritz Rugendas]]]]
Following the [[Mapuche uprising of 1655]] and abolition of [[Slavery of Mapuches|Mapuche slavery]] in 1683 in the Spanish Empire trade across the frontier increased.<ref name=MCLGuerraarauco>{{Cite journal| url   = http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-7681.html
| title = La Frontera araucana
| journal  = [[Memoria Chilena]]
| publisher  = [[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]
| access-date = November 30, 2019
| language = es
}}</ref> Mapuche-Spanish and later Mapuche-Chilean trade increased further in the second half of the 18th century as hostilities decreased.<ref name=Bengoa45-46>Bengoa 2000, pp. 45–46.</ref> Mapuches obtained [[Good (economics)|goods]] from Chile and some dressed in "Spanish" clothing.<ref name=Bengoa154>Bengoa 2000, p. 154.</ref> Despite close contacts Chileans and Mapuches remained socially, politically and economically distinct.<ref name=Bengoa154/> Spanish and later Chilean officials with the titles of [[comisario de naciones]] and [[capitán de amigos]] acted as intermediaries between the Mapuche and colonial and republican authorities.<ref name=MemChiTiposFro>{{Cite journal| url   = http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-97969.html
| title = Tipos fronterizos
| journal  = [[Memoria Chilena]]
| publisher  = [[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]
| access-date = January 12, 2021
| language = es
}}</ref>

During the [[Occupation of Araucanía]] the Republic of Chile advanced the frontier south from [[Bío Bío River]] to [[Malleco River]] where a well defended line of forts was established between 1861 and 1871.

Having decisively defeated Peru in the [[Battle of San Juan and Chorrillos|battles of Chorrillos]] and [[Battle of Miraflores|Miraflores]] in January 1881 Chilean authorities turned their attention to the southern frontier in Araucanía seeking to defend the previous advances that had been so difficult to establish.<ref name=Bengoa275-276>Bengoa 2000, pp. 275-276.</ref><ref name=Ferrando547>Ferrando 1986, p. 547</ref><ref name=Bengoa277-278>Bengoa 2000, pp. 277-278.</ref> The idea was not only to defend forts and settlements but also to advance the frontier all the way from [[Malleco River]] to [[Cautín River]].<ref name=Bengoa275-276/><ref name="Bengoa277-278"/>