Editing Group dynamics (section)

==Key theorists==

===Gustave Le Bon===
{{Main|Gustave Le Bon|The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind}}
Gustave Le Bon was a French social psychologist whose seminal study, ''[[The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind]]'' (1896) led to the development of [[Social psychology|group psychology]].

===William McDougall===
{{Main|William McDougall (psychologist)}}
The British psychologist William McDougall in his work ''The Group Mind'' (1920) researched the dynamics of groups of various sizes and degrees of organization.

===Sigmund Freud===
{{Main|Sigmund Freud}}
In ''[[Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego]],'' (1922), Sigmund Freud based his preliminary description of group psychology on Le Bon's work, but went on to develop his own, original theory, related to what he had begun to elaborate in ''[[Totem and Taboo]].'' [[Theodor Adorno]] reprised Freud's essay in 1951 with his  ''Freudian Theory and the Pattern of Fascist Propaganda'', and said that "It is not an overstatement if we say that Freud, though he was hardly interested in the political phase of the problem, clearly foresaw the rise and nature of fascist mass movements in purely psychological categories."<ref>Hammer, Espen [https://books.google.com/books?id=X3L5R3kiOh4C&pg=PA58 ''Adorno and the political''], pp.58–9</ref>

===Jacob L. Moreno===
{{Main|Jacob L. Moreno}}
Jacob L. Moreno was a psychiatrist, dramatist, philosopher and theoretician who coined the term "group psychotherapy" in the early 1930s and was highly influential at the time.

===Kurt Lewin===
{{Main|Kurt Lewin}}
Kurt Lewin (1943, 1948, 1951) is commonly identified as the founder of the movement to study groups scientifically.  He coined the term ''group dynamics'' to describe the way groups and individuals act and react to changing circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Klett Verlag| pages = 95–154|editor1= K. D. Benne | last1 = Benne| first1 = K. D.| last2 = Bradford| first2 = L. P.| last3 = Gibb| first3 = J. R.| title = Gruppentraining| chapter = Geschichte der Trainingsgruppe im Laboratorium| location = Stuttgart| date = 1972}}</ref>

===William Schutz===
{{Main|William Schutz}}
William Schutz (1958, 1966) looked at [[interpersonal relationships|interpersonal relations]]  as stage-developmental, inclusion (am I included?), control (who is top dog here?), and affection (do I belong here?).  Schutz sees groups resolving each issue in turn in order to be able to progress to the next stage.

Conversely, a struggling group can devolve to an earlier stage, if unable to resolve outstanding issues at its present stage. 
Schutz referred to these group dynamics as "the interpersonal underworld," group processes which are largely unseen and un-acknowledged, as opposed to "content" issues, which are nominally the agenda of group meetings.<ref>Schutz, W. (1958). ''FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior''. New York, NY: Rinehart.</ref><ref>Schutz, W. (1966). ''The Interpersonal Underworld''. (Updated version based on 1958 work). Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.</ref>

===Wilfred Bion===
{{Main|Wilfred Bion}}
Wilfred Bion (1961) studied group dynamics from a [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] perspective, and stated that he was much influenced by [[Wilfred Trotter]] for whom he worked at [[University College Hospital]] London, as did another key figure in the Psychoanalytic movement, [[Ernest Jones]]. He discovered several mass group processes which involved the group as a whole adopting an orientation which, in his opinion, interfered with the ability of a group to accomplish the work it was nominally engaged in.<ref>Page 194 to 196, Irvin D. Yalom, ''The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy'', third edition, Basic Books (1985), hardback, {{ISBN|0-465-08447-8}}</ref> Bion's experiences are reported in his published books, especially ''Experiences in Groups.'' The [[Tavistock Institute]] has further developed and applied the theory and practices developed by Bion.

===Bruce Tuckman===
{{Main|Bruce Tuckman}}
Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed the four-stage model called [[Forming-storming-norming-performing|Tuckman's Stages]] for a group. Tuckman's model states that the ideal group decision-making process should occur in four stages:

* ''Forming'' (pretending to get on or get along with others)
* ''Storming'' (letting down the politeness barrier and trying to get down to the issues even if tempers flare up)
* ''Norming'' (getting used to each other and developing trust and productivity)
* ''Performing'' (working in a group to a common goal on a highly efficient and cooperative basis)

Tuckman later added a fifth stage for the dissolution of a group called ''adjourning''. (''Adjourning'' may also be referred to as ''[[mourning]]'', i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group).  This model refers to the overall pattern of the group, but of course individuals within a group work in different ways.  If distrust persists, a group may never even get to the norming stage.

===M. Scott Peck===
{{Main|M. Scott Peck}}
M. Scott Peck developed stages for larger-scale groups (i.e., communities) which are similar to Tuckman's stages of group development.<ref>Peck, M. S. (1987) ''The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace.''p. 95-103.</ref>  Peck describes the stages of a community as:

* ''Pseudo-community''
* ''Chaos''
* ''Emptiness''
* ''True Community''

Communities may be distinguished from other types of groups, in Peck's view, by the need for members to eliminate barriers to communication in order to be able to form true community.  Examples of common barriers are: expectations and preconceptions; [[prejudices]]; [[ideology]], [[counterproductive norms]], [[theology]] and solutions; the need to heal, convert, fix or solve and the need to control.  A community is born when its members reach a stage of "emptiness" or [[peace]].

===Richard Hackman===
Richard Hackman developed a synthetic, research-based model for designing and managing work groups. Hackman suggested that groups are successful when they satisfy internal and external clients, develop capabilities to perform in the future, and when members find meaning and satisfaction in the group. Hackman proposed five conditions that increase the chance that groups will be successful.<ref>J. Richard Hackman (2002). ''Leading Teams: Setting the Stage for Great Performances''. Harvard Business Press.</ref> These include:
# ''Being a real team'': which results from having a shared task, clear boundaries which clarify who is inside or outside of the group, and stability in group membership.
# ''Compelling direction'': which results from a clear, challenging, and consequential goal.
# ''Enabling structure'': which results from having tasks which have variety, a group size that is not too large, talented group members who have at least moderate social skill, and strong norms that specify appropriate behaviour.
# ''Supportive context'': which occurs in groups nested in larger groups (e.g. companies). In companies, supportive contexts involves a) reward systems that reward performance and cooperation (e.g. group based rewards linked to group performance), b) an educational system that develops member skills, c) an information and materials system that provides the needed information and raw materials (e.g. computers).
# ''Expert coaching'': which occurs on the rare occasions when group members feel they need help with task or interpersonal issues. Hackman emphasizes that many team leaders are overbearing and undermine group effectiveness.