Editing Human genetic enhancement (section)

==Disease prevention==
{{Main|Preventive healthcare}}

{{Further|DNA immunization}}
{{See also|Immunocompromisation}}

With the discovery of various types of immune-related disorders, there is a need for diversification in prevention and treatment. Developments in the field of gene therapy are being studied to be included in the scope of this treatment, but of course more research is needed to increase the positive results and minimize the negative effects of gene therapy applications.<ref name="pmid35020169">{{cite journal | vauthors = Perez E | title = Future of Therapy for Inborn Errors of Immunity | journal = Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology | volume = 63 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–89 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 35020169 | pmc = 8753954 | doi = 10.1007/s12016-021-08916-8 }}</ref>
The CRISPR/Cas9 system is also designed as a gene editing technology for the treatment of HIV-1/AIDS. CRISPR/Cas9 has been developed as the latest gene editing technique that allows the insertion, deletion and modification of DNA sequences and provides advantages in the disruption of the latent HIV-1 virus. However, the production of some vectors for HIV-1-infected cells is still limited and further studies are needed<ref name="pmid30968001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xiao Q, Guo D, Chen S | title = Application of CRISPR/Cas9-Based Gene Editing in HIV-1/AIDS Therapy | journal = Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology | volume = 9 | issue =  | pages = 69 | date = 2019 | pmid = 30968001 | pmc = 6439341 | doi = 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00069 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Being an HIV carrier also plays an important role in the incidence of cervical cancer. While there are many personal and biological factors that contribute to the development of cervical cancer, HIV carriage is correlated with its occurrence. However, long-term research on the effectiveness of preventive treatment is still ongoing. Early education, accessible worldwide, will play an important role in prevention.<ref name="pmid34499351">{{cite journal | vauthors = Castle PE, Einstein MH, Sahasrabuddhe VV | title = Cervical cancer prevention and control in women living with human immunodeficiency virus | journal = CA | volume = 71 | issue = 6 | pages = 505–526 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34499351 | pmc = 10054840 | doi = 10.3322/caac.21696 }}</ref>
When medications and treatment methods are consistently adhered to, safe sexual practices are maintained and healthy lifestyle changes are implemented, the risk of transmission is reduced in most people living with HIV. Consistently implemented proactive prevention strategies can significantly reduce the incidence of HIV infections. Education on safe sex practices and risk-reducing changes for everyone, whether they are HIV carriers or not, is critical to preventing the disease.<ref name="pmid29278971">{{cite journal | vauthors = Carrion AJ, Miles JD, Mosley JF, Smith LL, Prather AS, Gurley MM, Phan LD, Everton EC | display-authors = 6 | title = Prevention Strategies Against HIV Transmission: A Proactive Approach | journal = Journal of Pharmacy Practice | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–90 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29278971 | doi = 10.1177/0897190017696946 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
However, controlling the HIV epidemic and eliminating the stigma associated with the disease may not be possible only through a general AIDS awareness campaign. It is observed that HIV awareness, especially among individuals in low socio-economic regions, is considerably lower than the general population. Although there is no clear-cut solution to prevent the transmission of HIV and the spread of the disease through sexual transmission, a combination of preventive measures can help to control the spread of HIV. Increasing knowledge and awareness plays an important role in preventing the spread of HIV by contributing to the improvement of behavioral decisions with high risk perception.<ref name="pmid31929359">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu ZY, Scott SR | title = Human immunodeficiency virus prevention strategies in China | journal = Chinese Medical Journal | volume = 133 | issue = 3 | pages = 318–325 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31929359 | pmc = 7004624 | doi = 10.1097/CM9.0000000000000647 }}</ref>
Genetics plays a pivotal role in disease prevention, offering insights into an individual's predisposition to certain conditions and paving the way for personalized strategies to mitigate disease risk. The burgeoning field of genetic testing and analysis has provided valuable tools for identifying genetic markers associated with various diseases, allowing for proactive measures to be taken in disease prevention <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khera AV, Chaffin M, Aragam KG, Haas ME, Roselli C, Choi SH, Natarajan P, Lander ES, Lubitz SA, Ellinor PT, Kathiresan S | display-authors = 6 | title = Genome-wide polygenic scores for common diseases identify individuals with risk equivalent to monogenic mutations | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 50 | issue = 9 | pages = 1219–24 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30104762 | pmc = 6128408 | doi = 10.1038/s41588-018-0183-z }}</ref> Disease prevention via genetic testing is made easier as genetic testing can unveil an individual's genetic susceptibility to certain diseases, enabling early detection and intervention which can be very crucial in disease like heritable cancers such and breast <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dorling L, Carvalho S, Allen J, González-Neira A, Luccarini C, Wahlström C, Pooley KA, Parsons MT, Fortuno C, Wang Q, Bolla MK, Dennis J, Keeman R, Alonso MR, Álvarez N, Herraez B, Fernandez V, Núñez-Torres R, Osorio A, Valcich J, Li M, Törngren T, Harrington PA, Baynes C, Conroy DM, Decker B, Fachal L, Mavaddat N, Ahearn T, Aittomäki K, Antonenkova NN, Arnold N, Arveux P, Ausems MG, Auvinen P, Becher H, Beckmann MW, Behrens S, Bermisheva M, Białkowska K, Blomqvist C, Bogdanova NV, Bogdanova-Markov N, Bojesen SE, Bonanni B, Børresen-Dale AL, Brauch H, Bremer M, Briceno I, Brüning T, Burwinkel B, Cameron DA, Camp NJ, Campbell A, Carracedo A, Castelao JE, Cessna MH, Chanock SJ, Christiansen H, Collée JM, Cordina-Duverger E, Cornelissen S, Czene K, Dörk T, Ekici AB, Engel C, Eriksson M, Fasching PA, Figueroa J, Flyger H, Försti A, Gabrielson M, Gago-Dominguez M, Georgoulias V, Gil F, Giles GG, Glendon G, Garcia EB, Alnæs GI, Guénel P, Hadjisavvas A, Haeberle L, Hahnen E, Hall P, Hamann U, Harkness EF, Hartikainen JM, Hartman M, He W, Heemskerk-Gerritsen BA, Hillemanns P, Hogervorst FB, Hollestelle A, Ho WK, Hooning MJ, Howell A, Humphreys K, Idris F, Jakubowska A, Jung A, Kapoor PM, Kerin MJ, Khusnutdinova E, Kim SW, Ko YD, Kosma VM, Kristensen VN, Kyriacou K, Lakeman IM, Lee JW, Lee MH, Li J, Lindblom A, Lo WY, Loizidou MA, Lophatananon A, Lubiński J, MacInnis RJ, Madsen MJ, Mannermaa A, Manoochehri M, Manoukian S, Margolin S, Martinez ME, Maurer T, Mavroudis D, McLean C, Meindl A, Mensenkamp AR, Michailidou K, Miller N, Mohd Taib NA, Muir K, Mulligan AM, Nevanlinna H, Newman WG, Nordestgaard BG, Ng PS, Oosterwijk JC, Park SK, Park-Simon TW, Perez JI, Peterlongo P, Porteous DJ, Prajzendanc K, Prokofyeva D, Radice P, Rashid MU, Rhenius V, Rookus MA, Rüdiger T, Saloustros E, Sawyer EJ, Schmutzler RK, Schneeweiss A, Schürmann P, Shah M, Sohn C, Southey MC, Surowy H, Suvanto M, Thanasitthichai S, Tomlinson I, Torres D, Truong T, Tzardi M, Valova Y, van Asperen CJ, Van Dam RM, van den Ouweland AM, van der Kolk LE, van Veen EM, Wendt C, Williams JA, Yang XR, Yoon SY, Zamora MP, Evans DG, de la Hoya M, Simard J, Antoniou AC, Borg Å, Andrulis IL, Chang-Claude J, García-Closas M, Chenevix-Trench G, Milne RL, Pharoah PD, Schmidt MK, Spurdle AB, Vreeswijk MP, Benitez J, Dunning AM, Kvist A, Teo SH, Devilee P, Easton DF | display-authors = 6 | title = Breast Cancer Risk Genes - Association Analysis in More than 113,000 Women | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 384 | issue = 5 | pages = 428–439 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33471991 | pmc = 7611105 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1913948 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mavaddat N, Michailidou K, Dennis J, Lush M, Fachal L, Lee A, Tyrer JP, Chen TH, Wang Q, Bolla MK, Yang X, Adank MA, Ahearn T, Aittomäki K, Allen J, Andrulis IL, Anton-Culver H, Antonenkova NN, Arndt V, Aronson KJ, Auer PL, Auvinen P, Barrdahl M, Beane Freeman LE, Beckmann MW, Behrens S, Benitez J, Bermisheva M, Bernstein L, Blomqvist C, Bogdanova NV, Bojesen SE, Bonanni B, Børresen-Dale AL, Brauch H, Bremer M, Brenner H, Brentnall A, Brock IW, Brooks-Wilson A, Brucker SY, Brüning T, Burwinkel B, Campa D, Carter BD, Castelao JE, Chanock SJ, Chlebowski R, Christiansen H, Clarke CL, Collée JM, Cordina-Duverger E, Cornelissen S, Couch FJ, Cox A, Cross SS, Czene K, Daly MB, Devilee P, Dörk T, Dos-Santos-Silva I, Dumont M, Durcan L, Dwek M, Eccles DM, Ekici AB, Eliassen AH, Ellberg C, Engel C, Eriksson M, Evans DG, Fasching PA, Figueroa J, Fletcher O, Flyger H, Försti A, Fritschi L, Gabrielson M, Gago-Dominguez M, Gapstur SM, García-Sáenz JA, Gaudet MM, Georgoulias V, Giles GG, Gilyazova IR, Glendon G, Goldberg MS, Goldgar DE, González-Neira A, Grenaker Alnæs GI, Grip M, Gronwald J, Grundy A, Guénel P, Haeberle L, Hahnen E, Haiman CA, Håkansson N, Hamann U, Hankinson SE, Harkness EF, Hart SN, He W, Hein A, Heyworth J, Hillemanns P, Hollestelle A, Hooning MJ, Hoover RN, Hopper JL, Howell A, Huang G, Humphreys K, Hunter DJ, Jakimovska M, Jakubowska A, Janni W, John EM, Johnson N, Jones ME, Jukkola-Vuorinen A, Jung A, Kaaks R, Kaczmarek K, Kataja V, Keeman R, Kerin MJ, Khusnutdinova E, Kiiski JI, Knight JA, Ko YD, Kosma VM, Koutros S, Kristensen VN, Krüger U, Kühl T, Lambrechts D, Le Marchand L, Lee E, Lejbkowicz F, Lilyquist J, Lindblom A, Lindström S, Lissowska J, Lo WY, Loibl S, Long J, Lubiński J, Lux MP, MacInnis RJ, Maishman T, Makalic E, Maleva Kostovska I, Mannermaa A, Manoukian S, Margolin S, Martens JW, Martinez ME, Mavroudis D, McLean C, Meindl A, Menon U, Middha P, Miller N, Moreno F, Mulligan AM, Mulot C, Muñoz-Garzon VM, Neuhausen SL, Nevanlinna H, Neven P, Newman WG, Nielsen SF, Nordestgaard BG, Norman A, Offit K, Olson JE, Olsson H, Orr N, Pankratz VS, Park-Simon TW, Perez JI, Pérez-Barrios C, Peterlongo P, Peto J, Pinchev M, Plaseska-Karanfilska D, Polley EC, Prentice R, Presneau N, Prokofyeva D, Purrington K, Pylkäs K, Rack B, Radice P, Rau-Murthy R, Rennert G, Rennert HS, Rhenius V, Robson M, Romero A, Ruddy KJ, Ruebner M, Saloustros E, Sandler DP, Sawyer EJ, Schmidt DF, Schmutzler RK, Schneeweiss A, Schoemaker MJ, Schumacher F, Schürmann P, Schwentner L, Scott C, Scott RJ, Seynaeve C, Shah M, Sherman ME, Shrubsole MJ, Shu XO, Slager S, Smeets A, Sohn C, Soucy P, Southey MC, Spinelli JJ, Stegmaier C, Stone J, Swerdlow AJ, Tamimi RM, Tapper WJ, Taylor JA, Terry MB, Thöne K, Tollenaar RA, Tomlinson I, Truong T, Tzardi M, Ulmer HU, Untch M, Vachon CM, van Veen EM, Vijai J, Weinberg CR, Wendt C, Whittemore AS, Wildiers H, Willett W, Winqvist R, Wolk A, Yang XR, Yannoukakos D, Zhang Y, Zheng W, Ziogas A, Dunning AM, Thompson DJ, Chenevix-Trench G, Chang-Claude J, Schmidt MK, Hall P, Milne RL, Pharoah PD, Antoniou AC, Chatterjee N, Kraft P, García-Closas M, Simard J, Easton DF | display-authors = 6 | title = Polygenic Risk Scores for Prediction of Breast Cancer and Breast Cancer Subtypes | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 104 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–34 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30554720 | pmc = 6323553 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.11.002 }}</ref> and ovarian cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Phelan CM, Kuchenbaecker KB, Tyrer JP, Kar SP, Lawrenson K, Winham SJ, Dennis J, Pirie A, Riggan MJ, Chornokur G, Earp MA, Lyra PC, Lee JM, Coetzee S, Beesley J, McGuffog L, Soucy P, Dicks E, Lee A, Barrowdale D, Lecarpentier J, Leslie G, Aalfs CM, Aben KK, Adams M, Adlard J, Andrulis IL, Anton-Culver H, Antonenkova N, Aravantinos G, Arnold N, Arun BK, Arver B, Azzollini J, Balmaña J, Banerjee SN, Barjhoux L, Barkardottir RB, Bean Y, Beckmann MW, Beeghly-Fadiel A, Benitez J, Bermisheva M, Bernardini MQ, Birrer MJ, Bjorge L, Black A, Blankstein K, Blok MJ, Bodelon C, Bogdanova N, Bojesen A, Bonanni B, Borg Å, Bradbury AR, Brenton JD, Brewer C, Brinton L, Broberg P, Brooks-Wilson A, Bruinsma F, Brunet J, Buecher B, Butzow R, Buys SS, Caldes T, Caligo MA, Campbell I, Cannioto R, Carney ME, Cescon T, Chan SB, Chang-Claude J, Chanock S, Chen XQ, Chiew YE, Chiquette J, Chung WK, Claes KB, Conner T, Cook LS, Cook J, Cramer DW, Cunningham JM, D'Aloisio AA, Daly MB, Damiola F, Damirovna SD, Dansonka-Mieszkowska A, Dao F, Davidson R, DeFazio A, Delnatte C, Doheny KF, Diez O, Ding YC, Doherty JA, Domchek SM, Dorfling CM, Dörk T, Dossus L, Duran M, Dürst M, Dworniczak B, Eccles D, Edwards T, Eeles R, Eilber U, Ejlertsen B, Ekici AB, Ellis S, Elvira M, Eng KH, Engel C, Evans DG, Fasching PA, Ferguson S, Ferrer SF, Flanagan JM, Fogarty ZC, Fortner RT, Fostira F, Foulkes WD, Fountzilas G, Fridley BL, Friebel TM, Friedman E, Frost D, Ganz PA, Garber J, García MJ, Garcia-Barberan V, Gehrig A, Gentry-Maharaj A, Gerdes AM, Giles GG, Glasspool R, Glendon G, Godwin AK, Goldgar DE, Goranova T, Gore M, Greene MH, Gronwald J, Gruber S, Hahnen E, Haiman CA, Håkansson N, Hamann U, Hansen TV, Harrington PA, Harris HR, Hauke J, Hein A, Henderson A, Hildebrandt MA, Hillemanns P, Hodgson S, Høgdall CK, Høgdall E, Hogervorst FB, Holland H, Hooning MJ, Hosking K, Huang RY, Hulick PJ, Hung J, Hunter DJ, Huntsman DG, Huzarski T, Imyanitov EN, Isaacs C, Iversen ES, Izatt L, Izquierdo A, Jakubowska A, James P, Janavicius R, Jernetz M, Jensen A, Jensen UB, John EM, Johnatty S, Jones ME, Kannisto P, Karlan BY, Karnezis A, Kast K, Kennedy CJ, Khusnutdinova E, Kiemeney LA, Kiiski JI, Kim SW, Kjaer SK, Köbel M, Kopperud RK, Kruse TA, Kupryjanczyk J, Kwong A, Laitman Y, Lambrechts D, Larrañaga N, Larson MC, Lazaro C, Le ND, Le Marchand L, Lee JW, Lele SB, Leminen A, Leroux D, Lester J, Lesueur F, Levine DA, Liang D, Liebrich C, Lilyquist J, Lipworth L, Lissowska J, Lu KH, Lubinński J, Luccarini C, Lundvall L, Mai PL, Mendoza-Fandiño G, Manoukian S, Massuger LF, May T, Mazoyer S, McAlpine JN, McGuire V, McLaughlin JR, McNeish I, Meijers-Heijboer H, Meindl A, Menon U, Mensenkamp AR, Merritt MA, Milne RL, Mitchell G, Modugno F, Moes-Sosnowska J, Moffitt M, Montagna M, Moysich KB, Mulligan AM, Musinsky J, Nathanson KL, Nedergaard L, Ness RB, Neuhausen SL, Nevanlinna H, Niederacher D, Nussbaum RL, Odunsi K, Olah E, Olopade OI, Olsson H, Olswold C, O'Malley DM, Ong KR, Onland-Moret NC, Orr N, Orsulic S, Osorio A, Palli D, Papi L, Park-Simon TW, Paul J, Pearce CL, Pedersen IS, Peeters PH, Peissel B, Peixoto A, Pejovic T, Pelttari LM, Permuth JB, Peterlongo P, Pezzani L, Pfeiler G, Phillips KA, Piedmonte M, Pike MC, Piskorz AM, Poblete SR, Pocza T, Poole EM, Poppe B, Porteous ME, Prieur F, Prokofyeva D, Pugh E, Pujana MA, Pujol P, Radice P, Rantala J, Rappaport-Fuerhauser C, Rennert G, Rhiem K, Rice P, Richardson A, Robson M, Rodriguez GC, Rodríguez-Antona C, Romm J, Rookus MA, Rossing MA, Rothstein JH, Rudolph A, Runnebaum IB, Salvesen HB, Sandler DP, Schoemaker MJ, Senter L, Setiawan VW, Severi G, Sharma P, Shelford T, Siddiqui N, Side LE, Sieh W, Singer CF, Sobol H, Song H, Southey MC, Spurdle AB, Stadler Z, Steinemann D, Stoppa-Lyonnet D, Sucheston-Campbell LE, Sukiennicki G, Sutphen R, Sutter C, Swerdlow AJ, Szabo CI, Szafron L, Tan YY, Taylor JA, Tea MK, Teixeira MR, Teo SH, Terry KL, Thompson PJ, Thomsen LC, Thull DL, Tihomirova L, Tinker AV, Tischkowitz M, Tognazzo S, Toland AE, Tone A, Trabert B, Travis RC, Trichopoulou A, Tung N, Tworoger SS, van Altena AM, Van Den Berg D, van der Hout AH, van der Luijt RB, Van Heetvelde M, Van Nieuwenhuysen E, van Rensburg EJ, Vanderstichele A, Varon-Mateeva R, Vega A, Edwards DV, Vergote I, Vierkant RA, Vijai J, Vratimos A, Walker L, Walsh C, Wand D, Wang-Gohrke S, Wappenschmidt B, Webb PM, Weinberg CR, Weitzel JN, Wentzensen N, Whittemore AS, Wijnen JT, Wilkens LR, Wolk A, Woo M, Wu X, Wu AH, Yang H, Yannoukakos D, Ziogas A, Zorn KK, Narod SA, Easton DF, Amos CI, Schildkraut JM, Ramus SJ, Ottini L, Goodman MT, Park SK, Kelemen LE, Risch HA, Thomassen M, Offit K, Simard J, Schmutzler RK, Hazelett D, Monteiro AN, Couch FJ, Berchuck A, Chenevix-Trench G, Goode EL, Sellers TA, Gayther SA, Antoniou AC, Pharoah PD | display-authors = 6 | title = Identification of 12 new susceptibility loci for different histotypes of epithelial ovarian cancer | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 49 | issue = 5 | pages = 680–691 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28346442 | pmc = 5612337 | doi = 10.1038/ng.3826 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang X, Song H, Leslie G, Engel C, Hahnen E, Auber B, Horváth J, Kast K, Niederacher D, Turnbull C, Houlston R, Hanson H, Loveday C, Dolinsky JS, LaDuca H, Ramus SJ, Menon U, Rosenthal AN, Jacobs I, Gayther SA, Dicks E, Nevanlinna H, Aittomäki K, Pelttari LM, Ehrencrona H, Borg Å, Kvist A, Rivera B, Hansen TV, Djursby M, Lee A, Dennis J, Bowtell DD, Traficante N, Diez O, Balmaña J, Gruber SB, Chenevix-Trench G, Investigators K, Jensen A, Kjær SK, Høgdall E, Castéra L, Garber J, Janavicius R, Osorio A, Golmard L, Vega A, Couch FJ, Robson M, Gronwald J, Domchek SM, Culver JO, de la Hoya M, Easton DF, Foulkes WD, Tischkowitz M, Meindl A, Schmutzler RK, Pharoah PD, Antoniou AC | display-authors = 6 | title = Ovarian and Breast Cancer Risks Associated With Pathogenic Variants in RAD51C and RAD51D | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 112 | issue = 12 | pages = 1242–50 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 32107557 | pmc = 7735771 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djaa030 }}</ref> Having genetic information can inform the development of precision medicine approaches and targeted therapies for disease prevention in general. By identifying genetic factors contributing to disease susceptibility, such as specific gene mutations associated with autoimmune disorders, researchers can develop targeted therapies to modulate the immune response and prevent the onset or progression of these conditions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhou Z, Li M | title = Targeted therapies for cancer | journal = BMC Medicine | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 90 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35272686 | pmc = 8915534 | doi = 10.1186/s12916-022-02287-3 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ntetsika T, Papathoma PE, Markaki I | title = Novel targeted therapies for Parkinson's disease | journal = Molecular Medicine | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 17 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33632120 | pmc = 7905684 | doi = 10.1186/s10020-021-00279-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pérez-Herrero E, Fernández-Medarde A | title = Advanced targeted therapies in cancer: Drug nanocarriers, the future of chemotherapy | journal = European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics | volume = 93 | pages = 52–79 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25813885 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejpb.2015.03.018 | hdl = 10261/134282 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

There are many types of neurodegenerative diseases. Alzheimer's disease is one of the most common one of these diseases and it affects millions of people worldwide. The CRISPR-Cas9 techniques can be used to prevent the Alzheimer's disease. For example, it has a potential to correct the autosomal dominant mutaitons, problematic neurons, restoring the associated electrophysiological deficits and decreased the Aβ peptides.<ref name="Nouri_Nojadeh_2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nouri Nojadeh J, Bildiren Eryilmaz NS, Ergüder BI | title = CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing for neurodegenerative diseases | journal = EXCLI Journal | volume = 22 | issue = | pages = 567–582 | date = 2023 | pmid = 37636024 | pmc = 10450213 | doi = 10.17179/excli2023-6155 }}</ref> Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is another highly lethal neurodegenerative disease. And CRISPR-Cas9 technology is simple and effective for changinc specific point mutations about ALS. Also with this technology Chen and his colleagues were found some important alterations in major indicators of ALS like decreasing in RNA foci, polypeptides and haplosufficiency.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen CX, Abdian N, Maussion G, Thomas RA, Demirova I, Cai E, Tabatabaei M, Beitel LK, Karamchandani J, Fon EA, Durcan TM | display-authors = 6 | title = A Multistep Workflow to Evaluate Newly Generated iPSCs and Their Ability to Generate Different Cell Types | journal = Methods and Protocols | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | date = July 2021 | page = 50 | doi = 10.3390/mps4030050 | pmid = 34287353 | pmc = 8293472 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Nouri_Nojadeh_2023" />

Some individuals experience [[immunocompromise]], a condition in which their immune systems are weakened and less effective in defending against various diseases, including but not limited to [[influenza]]. This susceptibility to infections can be attributed to a range of factors, including genetic flaws and genetic diseases such as Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID). Some gene therapies have already been developed or are being developed to correct these genetic flaws/diseases, hereby making these people less susceptible to catching additional diseases (i.e. influenza, ).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Garcia-Perez L, van Eggermond M, van Roon L, Vloemans SA, Cordes M, Schambach A, Rothe M, Berghuis D, Lagresle-Peyrou C, Cavazzana M, Zhang F, Thrasher AJ, Salvatori D, Meij P, Villa A, Van Dongen JJ, Zwaginga JJ, van der Burg M, Gaspar HB, Lankester A, Staal FJ, Pike-Overzet K | display-authors = 6 | title = Successful Preclinical Development of Gene Therapy for Recombinase-Activating Gene-1-Deficient SCID | journal = Molecular Therapy. Methods & Clinical Development | volume = 17 | pages = 666–682 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32322605 | pmc = 7163047 | doi = 10.1016/j.omtm.2020.03.016 | s2cid = 216061532 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These genetic flaws and diseases can significantly impact the body's ability to mount an effective immune response, leaving individuals vulnerable to a wide array of pathogens. However, advancements in gene therapy research and development have shown promising potential in addressing these genetic deficiencies however not without associated challenges<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Maeder ML, Gersbach CA | title = Genome-editing Technologies for Gene and Cell Therapy | journal = Molecular Therapy | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 430–446 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26755333 | pmc = 4786923 | doi = 10.1038/mt.2016.10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gonçalves GA, Paiva RM | title = Gene therapy: advances, challenges and perspectives | journal = Einstein | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 369–375 | date = 2017 | pmid = 29091160 | pmc = 5823056 | doi = 10.1590/S1679-45082017RB4024 }}</ref>

CRISPR technology is a promising tool not only for genetic disease corrections but also for the prevention of viral and bacterial infections. Utilizing CRISPR–Cas therapies, researchers have targeted viral infections like HSV-1, EBV, HIV-1, HBV, HPV, and HCV, with ongoing clinical trials for an HIV-clearing strategy named [[Excision BioTherapeutics|EBT-101]]. Additionally, CRISPR has demonstrated efficacy in preventing viral infections such as IAV and SARS-CoV-2 by targeting viral RNA genomes with Cas13d, and it has been used to sensitize antibiotic-resistant S. aureus to treatment through Cas9 delivered via bacteriophages.<ref name="pmid36280707">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chavez M, Chen X, Finn PB, Qi LS | title = Advances in CRISPR therapeutics | journal = Nature Reviews. Nephrology | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–22 | date = January 2023 | pmid = 36280707 | pmc = 9589773 | doi = 10.1038/s41581-022-00636-2 }}</ref>

Advancements in gene editing and gene therapy hold promise for disease prevention by addressing genetic factors associated with certain conditions. Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 offer the potential to correct genetic mutations associated with hereditary diseases, thereby preventing their manifestation in future generations and reducing disease burden. In November 2018, [[Lulu and Nana]] were created.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ma H, Marti-Gutierrez N, Park SW, Wu J, Lee Y, Suzuki K, Koski A, Ji D, Hayama T, Ahmed R, Darby H, Van Dyken C, Li Y, Kang E, Park AR, Kim D, Kim ST, Gong J, Gu Y, Xu X, Battaglia D, Krieg SA, Lee DM, Wu DH, Wolf DP, Heitner SB, Belmonte JC, Amato P, Kim JS, Kaul S, Mitalipov S | display-authors = 6 | title = Correction of a pathogenic gene mutation in human embryos | journal = Nature | volume = 548 | issue = 7668 | pages = 413–9 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28783728 | doi = 10.1038/nature23305 | s2cid = 205258702 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017Natur.548..413M }}{{Expression of Concern|doi=10.1038/nature23305|pmid=28783728|http://retractionwatch.com/2017/09/02/weekend-reads-3/ ''Retraction Watch''|http://retractionwatch.com/2017/10/05/nature-adds-alert-heavily-debated-paper-gene-editing/ ''Retraction Watch''}}</ref> By using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-Cas9, a gene editing technique, they disabled a gene called CCR5 in the embryos, aiming to close the protein doorway that allows HIV to enter a cell and make the subjects immune to the HIV virus.

Despite existing evidence of CRISPR technology, advancements in the field persist in reducing limitations. Researchers developed a new, gentle gene editing method for embryos using nanoparticles and peptide nucleic acids. Delivering editing tools without harsh injections, the method successfully corrected genes in mice without harming development. While ethical and technical questions remain, this study paves the way for potential future use in improving livestock and research animals, and maybe even in human embryos for disease prevention or therapy.<ref name="pmid37206203">{{cite journal | vauthors = Putman R, Ricciardi AS, Carufe KE, Quijano E, Bahal R, Glazer PM, Saltzman WM | title = Nanoparticle-mediated genome editing in single-cell embryos via peptide nucleic acids | journal = Bioengineering & Translational Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = e10458 | date = May 2023 | pmid = 37206203 | pmc = 10189434 | doi = 10.1002/btm2.10458 }}</ref>

Informing prospective parents about their susceptibility to genetic diseases is crucial. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis also holds significance for disease prevention by inheritance, as whole genome amplification and analysis help select a healthy embryo for implantation, preventing the transmission of a fatal metabolic disorder in the family.<ref name="pmid32013889">{{cite journal | vauthors = Habibzadeh P, Tabatabaei Z, Farazi Fard MA, Jamali L, Hafizi A, Nikuei P, Salarian L, Nasr Esfahani MH, Anvar Z, Faghihi MA | display-authors = 6 | title = Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis in an Iranian family with a novel mutation in MUT gene | journal = BMC Medical Genetics | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 22 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 32013889 | pmc = 6998079 | doi = 10.1186/s12881-020-0959-8 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Genetic human enhancement emerges as a potential frontier in disease prevention by precisely targeting genetic predispositions to various illnesses. Through techniques like CRISPR, specific genes associated with diseases can be edited or modified, offering the prospect of reducing the hereditary risk of conditions such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, or neurodegenerative diseases. This approach not only holds the potential to break the cycle of certain genetic disorders but also to influence the health trajectories of future generations.

Furthermore, genetic enhancement can extend its impact by focusing on fortifying the immune system and optimizing overall health parameters. By enhancing immune responses and fine-tuning genetic factors related to general well-being, the susceptibility to infectious diseases can be minimized. This proactive approach to health may contribute to a population less prone to ailments and more resilient in the face of environmental challenges.

However, the ethical dimensions of genetic manipulation cannot be overstated. Striking a delicate balance between scientific progress and ethical considerations is imperative. Robust regulatory frameworks and transparent guidelines are crucial to ensuring that genetic human enhancement is utilized responsibly, avoiding unintended consequences or potential misuse. As the field advances, the integration of ethical, legal, and social perspectives becomes paramount to harness the full potential of genetic human enhancement for disease prevention while respecting individual rights and societal values.<ref name=Doudna>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doudna JA, Charpentier E | title = Genome editing. The new frontier of genome engineering with CRISPR-Cas9 | journal = Science | volume = 346 | issue = 6213 | pages = 1258096 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25430774 | doi = 10.1126/science.1258096 | s2cid = 6299381 }}</ref>

Overall, the technology requires improvements in effectiveness, precision, and applications. Immunogenicity, off-target effects, mutations, delivery systems, and ethical issues are the main challenges that CRISPR technology faces. The safety concerns, ethical considerations, and the potential for misuse underscore the need for careful and responsible exploration of these technologies.<ref name="pmid37269466">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morshedzadeh F, Ghanei M, Lotfi M, Ghasemi M, Ahmadi M, Najari-Hanjani P, Sharif S, Mozaffari-Jovin S, Peymani M, Abbaszadegan MR | display-authors = 6 | title = An Update on the Application of CRISPR Technology in Clinical Practice | journal = Molecular Biotechnology | volume =  66| issue =  2| pages = 179–197 | date = June 2023 | pmid = 37269466 | pmc = 10239226 | doi = 10.1007/s12033-023-00724-z }}</ref> CRISPR-Cas9 technology offers so much on disease prevention and treatment yet its future aspects, especially those that affect the next generations, should be investigated strictly.