Editing Hungarian language (section)

==History==
{{Main |History of the Hungarian language}}

===Prehistory===
====Scholarly consensus====
The traditional view holds that the Hungarian language diverged from its [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, in [[western Siberia]] east of the southern [[Ural Mountains|Urals]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Uralic Languages |last= Abondolo |first=Daniel |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |location=London |pages=1–42 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> In Hungarian, Iranian loanwords date back to the time immediately following the breakup of [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] and probably span well over a millennium.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Uralic Languages |last=Abondolo |first=Daniel |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |location=London |pages=453 |chapter=Hungarian}}</ref> These include {{Lang|hu|tehén}} 'cow' (cf. [[Avestan]] {{lang|ae-latn|daénu}}); {{Lang|hu|tíz}} 'ten' (cf. Avestan {{lang|ae-latn|dasa}}); {{Lang|hu|tej}} 'milk' (cf. Persian {{lang|fa-latn|dáje}} 'wet nurse'); and {{lang|hu|nád}} 'reed' (from late [[Middle Iranian]]; cf. [[Middle Persian]] {{lang|pal-latn|nāy}} and Modern Persian {{lang|fa-latn|ney}}).

Archaeological evidence from present-day southern [[Bashkortostan]] confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the [[Volga River]] and the [[Ural Mountains]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Türk |first=Attila |title=A magyar őstörténet és a szaltovói régészeti kultúrkör |date=2011 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Szeged |url=http://doktori.bibl.u-szeged.hu/1167/ |doi=10.14232/phd.1167 |doi-access=free |language=hu |trans-title=Hungarian prehistory and the archaeological cultural circle of Saltovo}}</ref> The [[Onoğurs]] (and [[Bulgars]]) later had a great influence on the language, especially between the 5th and 9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied (e.g. {{lang|trk|szó}} {{gloss|word}}, from [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]; and {{lang|mis|daru}} {{gloss|crane}}, from the related [[Permic languages]]), and includes words borrowed from [[Oghur languages|Oghur Turkic]]; e.g. {{lang|hu|borjú}} {{gloss|calf}} (cf. [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] {{lang|cv-latn|păru}}, {{lang|cv-latn|părăv}} vs. [[Turkish language|Turkish]] {{lang|tr|buzağı}});<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Róna-Tas |first1=András |title=West Old Turkic: Turkic Loanwords in Hungarian. Part 1: Introduction, A-K |last2=Berta |first2=Árpád |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2011 |location=Wiesbaden |pages=151–2}}</ref> {{lang|hu|dél}} 'noon; south' (cf. Chuvash {{lang|cv-latn|tĕl}} vs. Turkish dial. {{lang|tr|düš}}).<ref>Róna-Tas & Berta, ''WOT'' 2011/1: 291-4.</ref> Many words related to agriculture,<ref>{{cite web|title=Hungary&nbsp;– Early history|url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/hutoc.html|work=[[Library of Congress]] (public domain)|access-date=2008-06-29}}</ref> [[Sovereign state|state]] administration and even family relationships show evidence of such backgrounds.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} Hungarian [[syntax]] and [[grammar]] were not influenced in a similarly dramatic way over these three centuries.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}
[[File:Hu-funeral sermon and prayer OSZK.jpg|thumb|[[Funeral Sermon and Prayer]], 12th century]]
[[File:Komjati sztpal.jpg|thumb|A page from the first book written completely in Hungarian, 1533]]

After the [[Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin|arrival of the Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin]], the language came into contact with a variety of [[Sprachbund|speech communities]], among them [[Slavs|Slavic]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], and [[Germans|German]]. Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the [[Pechenegs]] and [[Cumans|Cumanians]], who settled in Hungary during the 12th and 13th centuries: e.g. {{lang|hu|koboz}} "[[cobza]]" (cf. Turkish {{lang|tr|kopuz}} 'lute'); ''[[komondor]]'' "mop dog" (< *''kumandur'' < ''Cuman''). 20% of loanwords in Hungarian borrowed from neighbouring [[Slavic languages]]:<ref name="kenesei-p134">{{Cite book |title=A nyelv és a nyelvek |publisher=[[Akadémiai Kiadó]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-963-05-7959-9 |editor-last=Kenesei |editor-first=István |editor-link=István Kenesei |edition=5., jav., bőv. kiad |location=Budapest |page=134 |language=hu |trans-title=Language and languages |quote=21% finnugor, 9,5% török, 20% szláv, 11% német, 6% latin és görög, 2,5% újlatin, 1% egyéb ismert eredetű és 30% bizonytalan eredetű. NOTE: these percentages add up to 101%. |editor-last2=Bánréti |editor-first2=Zoltán |url=https://www.academia.edu/11616679}}</ref> e.g. {{lang|hu|tégla}} 'brick'; {{lang|hu|mák}} 'poppy seed'; {{lang|hu|szerda}} 'Wednesday'; {{lang|hu|csütörtök}} 'Thursday'...; {{lang|hu|karácsony}} 'Christmas'.<ref>Gábor Zaicz, [http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tinta/TAMOP-4_2_5-09_Etimologiai_szotar/adatok.html ''Etimológiai szótár: Magyar szavak és toldalékok eredete''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303120329/http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tinta/TAMOP-4_2_5-09_Etimologiai_szotar/adatok.html |date=2016-03-03 }}, s.v. "karácsony" (Tinta Könyvkiadó, 2006).</ref> These languages in turn borrowed words from Hungarian: e.g. [[Serbo-Croatian]] {{lang|sh|ašov}} from Hungarian {{lang|hu|ásó}} 'spade'. About 1.6 percent of the [[Romanian language|Romanian]] [[lexicon]] is of Hungarian origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sala |first=Marius |title=Vocabularul reprezentativ al limbilor romanice |publisher=Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică |year=1988 |location=Bucharest |trans-title=Representative vocabulary of the Romance languages}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schulte |first=Kim |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |year=2009 |editor-last=Haspelmath |editor-first=Martin |location=Berlin |pages=239 |chapter=Loanwords in Romanian |editor-last2=Tadmor |editor-first2=Uri}}</ref>

In the 21st century, studies support an origin of the Uralic languages, including early Hungarian, in eastern or central [[Siberia]], somewhere between the [[Ob River|Ob]] and [[Yenisei River|Yenisei]] rivers or near the [[Sayan Mountains|Sayan mountains]] in the [[Russia]]n–[[Mongolia]]n border region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Janhunen |first=Juha |title=The Quasquicentennial of the Finno-Ugrian Society |date=2009 |publisher=Société Finno-Ougrienne |isbn=978-952-5667-11-0 |editor-last=Ylikoski |editor-first=Jussi |series=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia 258 |location=Helsinki |chapter=Proto-Uralic—what, where and when? |issn=0355-0230 |chapter-url=https://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust258/sust258_janhunen.pdf}}</ref> A 2019 study based on genetics, archaeology and linguistics, found that early Uralic speakers arrived in Europe from the east, specifically from eastern Siberia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Metspalu |first2=Mait |last3=Lang |first3=Valter |last4=Villems |first4=Richard |last5=Kivisild |first5=Toomas |last6=Kriiska |first6=Aivar |last7=Thomas |first7=Mark G. |last8=Díez del Molino |first8=David |last9=Crema |first9=Enrico Ryunosuke |date=2019 |title=The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=1701–1711.e16 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.026 |issn=0960-9822 |pmc=6544527 |pmid=31080083|bibcode=2019CBio...29E1701S }}</ref>

====Alternative views====
{{main|Alternative theories of Hungarian language origins}}
Hungarian historian and archaeologist [[Gyula László]] claims that [[geology|geological]] data from [[pollen analysis]] seems to contradict the placing of the ancient Hungarian homeland near the Urals.<ref>Laszlo Gyula, ''The Magyars: Their Life and Civilization'', (1996). On p. 37 he states: "This seemed to be an impeccable conclusion until attention was paid to the actual testimony of tree-pollen analyses, and these showed that the linguists had failed to take into account changes in the vegetation zones over the millennia. After analysis of the plant pollens in the supposed homeland of the Magyars, which were preserved in the soil, it became clear to scientists that the [[taiga]] and [[deciduous forest]]s were only in contact during the second millennium B.C.E., which is much too late to affect Finno-Ugrian history. So the territory sought by the linguists as the location of the putative 'ancient homeland' never existed. At 5,000-6,000 B.C.E., the period at which the Uralic era has been dated, the taiga was still thousands of kilometres away from the Ural mountains and the mixed deciduous forest had only just begun its northward advance."</ref>

====Historical controversy over origins====
Today, the consensus among linguists is that Hungarian is a member of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] family of languages.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uralic-languages | title=Uralic languages {{pipe}} Britannica | date=21 September 2023 }}</ref>

The classification of Hungarian as a Uralic/Finno-Ugric rather than a [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] language continued to be a matter of impassioned political controversy throughout the 18th and into the 19th centuries. During the latter half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian, or, alternatively, that both the Uralic and the Turkic families formed part of a [[superfamily (linguistics)|superfamily]] of [[Ural–Altaic languages]]. Following an academic debate known as ''Az ugor-török háború'' ("the Ugric-Turkic war"), the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, mainly based on work by the German linguist [[Josef Budenz]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcantonio |first1=Angela |last2=Nummenaho |first2=Pirjo |last3=Salvagni |first3=Michela |year=2001 |title=The "Ugric-Turkic Battle": A Critical Review |url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/va_lu/l37-2-1.pdf |journal=Linguistica Uralica |volume=2 |access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref>

Hungarians did, in fact, absorb some Turkic influences during several centuries of cohabitation. The influence on Hungarians was mainly from the Turkic [[Oghur languages|Oghur]] speakers such as [[Sabirs]], [[Volga Bulgaria|Bulgars]] of [[Atil]], [[Kabars]] and [[Khazars]]. The Oghur tribes are often connected with the Hungarians whose exoethnonym is usually derived from [[Onogurs]] (> (H)ungars), a [[Turkic tribal confederation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Golden |first1=Peter B. |title=An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East |date=1992 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447032742 |pages=102–103}}</ref> The similarity between customs of Hungarians and the [[Chuvash people]], the only surviving member of the Oghur tribes, is visible. For example, the Hungarians appear to have learned [[animal husbandry]] techniques from the Oghur speaking [[Chuvash people]] (or historically [[Suar Principality|Suvar people]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Danver |first1=Steven L. |title=Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues |date=2013 |publisher=Sharpe Reference, an imprint of M.E. Sharpe, Inc |location=Armonk, NY |isbn=978-1317464006 |page=282}}</ref>), as a high proportion of words specific to agriculture and livestock are of Chuvash origin. A strong Chuvash influence was also apparent in Hungarian [[burial]] customs.

===Old Hungarian===
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2020}}
The first written accounts of Hungarian date to the 10th century, such as mostly Hungarian personal names and place names in {{Lang|la|[[De Administrando Imperio]]}}, written in Greek by Eastern Roman Emperor [[Constantine VII]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tóth |first=Valéria |date=July 2016 |title=Etelköztől Tihanyig. A helynevek és a magyar őstörténet |trans-title=From Etelköz to Tihany. Place names and Hungarian prehistory |url=http://www.rubicon.hu/ma_files/2016_07_96.pdf |language=hu |journal=Rubicon |volume=27 |issue=7 |page=96 |issn=0865-6347 |access-date=May 29, 2020}}</ref> No significant texts written in [[Old Hungarian script]] have survived, because the medium of writing used at the time, wood, is perishable.

The [[Kingdom of Hungary]] was founded in 1000 by [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]]. The country became a [[Western culture|Western]]-styled Christian ([[Roman Catholic]]) state, with [[Latin script]] replacing [[Old Hungarian script|Hungarian runes]]. The earliest remaining fragments of the language are found in the [[establishing charter of the abbey of Tihany]] from 1055, intermingled with Latin text. The first extant text fully written in Hungarian is the [[Funeral Sermon and Prayer]], which dates to the 1190s. Although the [[orthography]] of these early texts differed considerably from that used today, contemporary Hungarians can still understand a great deal of the reconstructed spoken language, despite changes in grammar and vocabulary.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

A more extensive body of [[Hungarian literature]] arose after 1300. The earliest known example of Hungarian [[Christian poetry|religious poetry]] is the 14th-century ''[[Lamentations of Mary]]''. The first [[Bible translation]] was the [[Hussite Bible]] in the 1430s.<ref name="Kiss2014">{{Cite book |last= É. Kiss |first=Katalin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT76 |title=The Evolution of Functional Left Peripheries in Hungarian Syntax |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-870985-5 |page=76}}</ref><ref name="KaplanBaldauf2005">{{cite book|author1=Robert B. Kaplan|author2=Richard B. Baldauf|title=Language Planning and Policy in Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei6TGveKcuEC&pg=PA55|year=2005|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-85359-811-1|page=55}}</ref>

The standard language lost its [[diphthong]]s, and several [[postposition]]s transformed into [[suffix]]es, including ''reá'' "onto" (the phrase ''utu '''rea''''' "onto the way" found in the 1055 text would later become ''út'''ra'''''). There were also changes in the system of [[vowel harmony]]. At one time, Hungarian used six [[verb]] [[Grammatical tense|tenses]], while today only two or three are used.<ref name="MathieuTruswell2017">{{Cite book |last1=Mathieu |first1=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCwpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |title=Micro-Change and Macro-Change in Diachronic Syntax |last2=Truswell |first2=Robert |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-874784-0 |pages=66–}}</ref><ref group=note>The future is formed with an [[auxiliary verb]], and so is sometimes not counted as a separate tense. (See also: [[periphrasis]].)</ref>

===Modern Hungarian===
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2018}}
[[File:Esztergom Jordánszky-kódex.JPG|thumb|The [[Bible]] in Hungarian]]
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In 1533, [[Kraków]] printer [[Benedek Komjáti]] published {{ill|Letters of St. Paul in Hungarian|hu|Az zenth Paal leueley magyar nyeluen|vertical-align=sup}} (modern orthography: {{lang|hu|A Szent Pál levelei magyar nyelven}}), the first Hungarian-language book set in [[movable type]].

By the 17th century, the language already closely resembled its present-day form, although two of the past tenses remained in use. German, Italian and French loans also began to appear. Further Turkish words were borrowed during the period of [[Ottoman Hungary|Ottoman rule]] (1541 to 1699).

In the 19th century, a group of writers, most notably [[Ferenc Kazinczy]], spearheaded a process of ''nyelvújítás'' ([[language revitalization]]). Some words were shortened (''győzedelem'' > ''győzelem'', 'victory' or 'triumph'); a number of [[dialect]]al words spread nationally (''e.g.'', ''cselleng'' 'dawdle'); extinct words were reintroduced (''dísz'', 'décor'); a wide range of expressions were [[neologism|coined]] using the various derivative suffixes; and some other, less frequently used methods of expanding the language were utilized. This movement produced more than ten thousand words, most of which are used actively today.

The 19th and 20th centuries saw further [[language standardization|standardization]] of the language, and differences between [[mutually comprehensible]] dialects gradually diminished.

In 1920, Hungary signed the [[Treaty of Trianon]], losing 71 percent of its territory and one-third of the ethnic Hungarian population along with it.
[[File:Magyar Nyelv Múz-2.jpg|thumb|Museum of the Hungarian Language in [[Széphalom (Sátoraljaújhely)|Széphalom]], [[Sátoraljaújhely]]]]
Today, the language holds [[official language|official status]] nationally in Hungary and regionally in [[Hungarians in Romania|Romania]], [[Hungarians in Slovakia|Slovakia]], [[Hungarians in Vojvodina|Serbia]], [[Hungarians in Austria|Austria]] and [[Slovenia]].

In 2014 The proportion of Transylvanian students studying Hungarian exceeded the proportion of Hungarian students, which shows that the effects of [[Romanianization]] are slowly getting reversed and regaining popularity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyula |first=Szabó |date=2023-04-24 |title=Fordulat történt az Erdélyben magyar nyelven tanulók arányában |url=https://index.hu/belfold/2023/04/24/erdely-magyar-nyelvtanulas-oktatas/ |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=index.hu |language=hu}}</ref> The Dictate of Trianon resulted in a high proportion of Hungarians in the surrounding 7 countries, so it is widely spoken or understood. Although host countries are not always considerate of Hungarian language users,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Láncos Petra |first=Lea |date=2016 |title=A külhoni magyarok nyelvi diszkriminációja az Unióban – Az EU Közszolgálati Törvényszékének ítélete a román bővítéssel összefüggésben szervezett versenyvizsgáról |url=https://bgazrt.hu/wp-content/uploads/NPKI_folyoiratok/kisebbsegi_szemle/2016_01/ksz201601_11lancospetra.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Az Emberi Jogok Európai Bírósága szerint nem hátrányos a magyarok számára a romániai érettségi rendszer |url=https://ma7.sk/nagyvilag/az-emberi-jogok-europai-birosaga-szerint-nem-hatranyos-a-magyarok-szamara-a-romaniai |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=Az Emberi Jogok Európai Bírósága szerint nem hátrányos a magyarok számára a romániai érettségi rendszer {{!}} ma7.sk |language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Népszava |title=A romániai bíróság szerint nyugodtan lehet a lovak nyelvének nevezni a magyar nyelvet |url=https://nepszava.hu/3079400_a-romaniai-birosag-szerint-nyugodtan-lehet-a-lovak-nyelvenek-nevezni-a-magyar-nyelvet |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=Népszava |language=hu}}</ref> communities are strong. The [[Székelys|Szeklers]], for example, form their own region and have their own national museum, educational institutions, and hospitals.