Editing Impression management (section)

== Theory ==

=== Motives ===
Impression management can be found in all social interactions, whether real or imaginary, and is governed by a range of factors. The characteristics of a given social situation are important; specifically, the surrounding [[cultural norms]] determine the appropriateness of particular nonverbal behaviors.<ref>Kamau, C. (2009) Strategising impression management in corporations: cultural knowledge as capital. In D. Harorimana (Ed) Cultural implications of knowledge sharing, management and transfer: identifying competitive advantage. Chapter 4. Information Science Reference. {{ISBN|978-1-60566-790-4}}</ref> The actions and exchange have to be appropriate to the targets, and within that culture's norms. Thus, the nature of the audience and its relationship with the speaker influences the way impression management is realized. 

The awareness of being a potential subject of monitoring is also crucial. A person's goals inform the strategies of impression management, and can influence how they are received. This leads to distinct ways of presenting the self. [[Self-efficacy]] describes whether a person is convinced that it is possible to convey the intended impression.<ref>Doering 1999, p. 261-2.</ref> [[Conmen]], for instance, can rely on their ability to emanate self-assuredness in the process of gaining a mark's trust.

There is evidence that, all other things being equal, people are more likely to pay attention to faces associated with negative gossip compared to those with neutral or positive associations.<ref name=":6" /> This contributes to a body of work indicating that, far from being objective, human perceptions are shaped by unconscious brain processes that determine what they "choose" to see or ignore—even before a person is consciously aware of it. The findings also add to the idea that the brain evolved to be particularly sensitive to "bad guys" or cheaters—fellow humans who undermine social life by deception, theft or other non-cooperative behavior.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | pmid = 21596956 | doi=10.1126/science.1201574 | volume=332 | issue=6036 | title=The visual impact of gossip. | date=Jun 2011 | journal=Science | pages=1446–8 | pmc=3141574 | last1 = Anderson | first1 = E | last2 = Siegel | first2 = EH | last3 = Bliss-Moreau | first3 = E | last4 = Barrett | first4 = LF| bibcode=2011Sci...332.1446A }}</ref>

There are many methods behind self-presentation, including [[self disclosure|self-disclosure]] (identifying what makes you "you" to another person), managing appearances (trying to fit in), [[ingratiation]], aligning actions (making one's actions seem appealing or understandable), and [[Altercasting|alter-casting]] (imposing identities onto other people). Maintaining a version of self-presentation that is generally considered to be attractive can help to increase one's [[social capital]]; this method is commonly used at networking events. These self-presentation methods can also be used by corporations for impression management with the public.<ref name="Sanaria" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-impression-management.htm|title=What is Impression Management?|website=wiseGEEK|date=22 July 2023 }}</ref>

=== Self-presentation  ===

Self-presentation is conveying information about oneself – or an image of oneself – to others. There are two types and motivations of self-presentation:
* presentation meant to match one's own self-image, and
* presentation meant to match audience expectations and preferences.<ref>{{cite book| title=Theories of Group Behavior | editor1-first=Brian | editor1-last=Mullen| editor2-first=George R. | editor2-last=Goethals| last1=Baumeister|first1=Roy F.|chapter=Self-Presentation Theory: Self-Construction and Audience Pleasing| pages=71–87|series=Springer Series in Social Psychology|date=1987}}</ref>

Self-presentation is expressive. Individuals construct an image of themselves to claim personal identity, and present themselves in a manner that is consistent with that image. If they feel like it is restricted, they often exhibit [[Reactance (psychology)|reactance]] or become defiant – try to assert their freedom against those who would seek to curtail self-presentation expressiveness. An example of this dynamic is someone who grew up with extremely strict or controlling parental figures. The child in this situation may feel that their identity and emotions have been suppressed, which may cause them to behave negatively towards others.

* ''[[Boasting]]'' – [[Theodore Millon|Millon]] notes that in self-presentation individuals are challenged to balance boasting against discrediting themselves via excessive self-promotion or being caught and being proven wrong. Individuals often have limited ability to perceive how their efforts impact their acceptance and likeability by others.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Millon|first1=Theodore|title=Handbook of Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology|date=2003|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38404-5|page=337}}</ref>
* ''[[Flattery]]'' – flattery or [[praise]] to increase social attractiveness{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=169}}
* ''[[Intimidation]]'' – aggressively showing [[anger]] to get others to hear and obey one's demands.<ref>Felson 1984, p. 187.</ref>

Self-presentation can be either defensive or assertive strategies (also described as protective versus acquisitive).<ref>{{Citation|last=ARKIN|first=ROBERT M.|chapter=Self-Presentation Styles|date=1981|pages=311–333|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=9780126851809|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-685180-9.50020-8|title=Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research}}</ref> Whereas defensive strategies include behaviours like avoidance of threatening situations or means of [[self-handicapping]], [[assertive]] strategies refer to more active behaviour like the verbal idealisation of the self, the use of status symbols or similar practices.<ref name= Piwinger>{{Cite book | last1=Piwinger | first1= Manfred | last2=Ebert | first2= Helmut | year=2001 | chapter=Impression Management: Wie aus Niemand Jemand wird| title=in: Bentele, Guenther et al. (Ed.), Kommunikationsmanagement: Strategien, Wissen, Lösungen | publisher=Luchterhand, Neuwied }}</ref>

These strategies play important roles in one's maintenance of [[self-esteem]].<ref>Leary; Kowalski 1990.</ref> One's self-esteem is affected by their evaluation of their own performance and their perception of how others react to their performance. As a result, people actively portray impressions that will elicit self-esteem enhancing reactions from others.<ref>Hass 1981</ref>

In 2019, as filtered photos are perceived as deceptive by users, PlentyOfFish along with other dating sites have started to ban filtered images.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2019/09/18/plenty-of-fish-and-other-apps-are-going-filter-free/|title=Plenty of Fish and other apps are going 'filter-free'|last=Frishberg|first=Hannah|date=2019-09-19|website=New York Post|language=en|access-date=2019-09-19}}</ref>

=== Social interaction ===
{{See also|Social death|Social stress}}
Goffman argued in his 1967 book, ''Interaction ritual'', that people participate in social interactions by performing a "line", or "pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts", which is created and maintained by both the performer and the audience.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior|last=Goffman|first=E.|publisher=Aldine|year=1967|location=Chicago}}</ref> By enacting a line effectively, the person gains positive social value, which is also called "face". The success of a social interaction will depend on whether the performer has the ability to maintain face.<ref name=":2" /> As a result, a person is required to display a kind of character by becoming "someone who can be relied upon to maintain himself as an interactant, poised for communication, and to act so that others do not endanger themselves by presenting themselves as interactants to him".<ref name=":1" /> Goffman analyses how a human being in "ordinary work situations presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them".<ref>Goffman, 1959, p.8</ref>

When Goffman turned to focus on people physically presented in a social interaction, the "social dimension of impression management certainly extends beyond the specific place and time of engagement in the organization". Impression management is "a social activity that has individual and community implications".<ref name=":2" /> We call it "pride" when a person displays a good showing from duty to himself, while we call it "honor" when he "does so because of duty to wider social units, and receives support from these duties in doing so".<ref name=":1" />

Another approach to moral standards that Goffman pursues is the notion of "rules of conduct", which "can be partially understood as obligations or moral constraints". These rules may be substantive (involving laws, morality, and ethics) or ceremonial (involving etiquette).<ref name=":2" /> Rules of conduct play an important role when a relationship "is asymmetrical and the expectations of one person toward another are hierarchical."<ref name=":2" />

=== Dramaturgical analogy ===
Goffman presented impression management [[Dramaturgy (sociology)|dramaturgically]], explaining the motivations behind complex human performances within a social setting based on a play metaphor.<ref>Dillard et al., 2000</ref> Goffman's work incorporates aspects of a symbolic [[Interactionism|interactionist]] perspective,{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=34}} emphasizing a qualitative analysis of the interactive nature of the communication process. Impression management requires the physical presence of others. Performers who seek certain ends in their interest, must "work to adapt their behavior in such a way as to give off the correct impression to a particular audience" and "implicitly ask that the audience take their performance seriously".<ref name=":2" /> Goffman proposed that while among other people individual would always strive to control the impression that others form of him or her so that to achieve individual or social goals.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Social Thought of Erving Goffman|last1=Jacobsen|first1=Michael|last2=Kristiansen|first2=Søren|date=2015|location=Thousand Oaks, California|doi=10.4135/9781483381725|isbn=9781412998031}}</ref>

The actor, shaped by the environment and target audience, sees interaction as a performance. The objective of the performance is to provide the audience with an impression consistent with the desired goals of the actor.<ref>Barnhart, 1994</ref> Thus, impression management is also highly dependent on the situation.<ref>Goffman 2006, p. 40.</ref> In addition to these goals, individuals differ in responses from the interactive environment, some may be non-responsive to an audience's reactions while others actively respond to audience reactions in order to elicit positive results. These differences in response towards the environment and target audience are called [[self-monitoring theory|self-monitoring]].<ref name="Doring">Döring 1999, p. 262.</ref> Another factor in impression management is [[self-verification theory|self-verification]], the act of conforming the audience to the person's [[self-concept]].

The audience can be real or imaginary. IM style norms, part of the mental programming received through socialization, are so fundamental that we usually do not notice our expectations of them. While an actor (speaker) tries to project a desired image, an audience (listener) might attribute a resonant or discordant image. An example is provided by situations in which embarrassment occurs and threatens the image of a participant.<ref>Goffman 1956</ref>

Goffman proposes that performers "can use dramaturgical discipline as a defense to ensure that the 'show' goes on without interruption."<ref name=":2" /> Goffman contends that dramaturgical discipline includes:<ref name=":2" />
# coping with dramaturgical contingencies;
# demonstrating intellectual and emotional involvement;
# remembering one's part and not committing unmeant gestures or faux pas;
# not giving away secrets involuntarily;
# covering up inappropriate behavior on the part of teammates on the spur of the moment;
# offering plausible reasons or deep apologies for disruptive events;
# maintaining self-control (for example, speaking briefly and modestly);
# suppressing emotions to private problems; and
# suppressing spontaneous feelings.

=== Manipulation and ethics ===
In business, "managing impressions" normally "involves someone trying to control the image that a significant stakeholder has of them". The ethics of impression management has been hotly debated on whether we should see it as an effective self-revelation or as cynical [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]].<ref name=":2" /> Some people insist that impression management can reveal a truer version of the self by adopting the strategy of being transparent. Because [[Transparency (behavior)|transparency]] "can be provided so easily and because it produces information of value to the audience, it changes the nature of impression management from being cynically manipulative to being a kind of useful adaptation".

[[Virtue signalling]] is used within groups to criticize their own members for valuing outward appearance over substantive action (having a real or permanent, rather than apparent or temporary, existence).

[[Psychological manipulation]] is a type of [[social influence]] that aims to change the behavior or [[perception]] of others through [[abuse|abusive]], [[deceptive]], or underhanded tactics.<ref name=braiker>{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref> By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.  The process of manipulation involves bringing an unknowing victim under the domination of the manipulator, often using deception, and using the victim to serve their own purposes.

[[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]] is a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to be unemotional, and therefore able to detach him or herself from conventional morality and hence to deceive and manipulate others.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sideways-view/201611/the-machiavellian-boss|title=The Machiavellian Boss|work=Psychology Today|date=November 18, 2016|author=Adrian Furnham}}</ref> (See also [[Machiavellianism in the workplace]].)

Lying constitutes a force that is destructive and can manipulate an environment allowing them to be narcissistic human beings. A person's mind can be manipulated into believing those antics are true as though it relates to being solely deceptive and unethical.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Michels |first=Moritz |url=https://www-sciencedirect-com.rlib.pace.edu/science/article/pii/S0191886920303846 |title=The ability to lie and its relations to the dark triad and general intelligence |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |date=November 1, 2020 |volume=166 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2020.110195 |oclc=|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Theories show manipulation can cause a huge effect on the dynamic of one's relationship. The emotions of a person can stem from a trait that is mistrustful, triggering one's attitude and character to misbehave disapprovingly. Relationships with a positive force can provide a greater exchange whereas with relationships having poor moral values, the chances of the connection will be based on detachment and disengagement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krause |first=Diana Eva |date=August 1, 2012 |title=Consequences of Manipulation in Organizations: Two Studies on its Effects on Emotions and Relationships |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=199–218 |doi=10.2466/01.21.PR0.111.4.199-218 |pmid=23045863 |s2cid=7937973 |url=https://journals-sagepub-com.rlib.pace.edu/doi/abs/10.2466/01.21.PR0.111.4.199-218|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Dark personalities and manipulation are within the same entity. It will intervene between a person's attainable goal if their perspective is only focused on self-centeredness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Breeden |first=Christopher J |date=September 1, 2020 |title=When you need identity management, people higher in some "dark" personalities can be your most thoughtful and altruistic helpers |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=163 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2020.110052 |url=https://www-sciencedirect-com.rlib.pace.edu/science/article/pii/S0191886920302415|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The personality entices a range of erratic behaviors that will corrupt the mind into practicing violent acts resulting in a rage of anger and physical harm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pailing |first1=Andrea |last2=Boon |first2=Julian |last3=Egan |first3=Vincent |date=2014-09-01 |title=Personality, the Dark Triad and violence |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886913013767 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |series=The Dark Triad of Personality |language=en |volume=67 |pages=81–86 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.018 |issn=0191-8869|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Public relations]] Ethics. Professionals both serve the public's interest and private interests of businesses, associations, non-profit organizations, and governments. This dual obligation gave rise to heated debates among scholars of the discipline and practitioners over its fundamental values. This conflict represents the main ethical predicament of public relations.[40] In 2000, the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) responded to the controversy by acknowledging in its new code of ethics "advocacy" – for the first time – as a core value of the discipline.[40]

The field of public relations is generally highly un-regulated, but many professionals voluntarily adhere to the code of conduct of one or more professional bodies to avoid exposure for ethical violations.[41] The Chartered Institute of Public Relations, the Public Relations Society of America, and The Institute of Public Relations are a few organizations that publish an ethical code. Still, Edelman's 2003 semi-annual trust survey found that only 20 percent of survey respondents from the public believed paid communicators within a company were credible.[42] Individuals in public relations are growing increasingly concerned with their company's marketing practices, questioning whether they agree with the company's social responsibility. They seek more influence over marketing and more of a counseling and policy-making role. On the other hand, individuals in marketing are increasingly interested in incorporating publicity as a tool within the realm marketing.[43]

According to Scott Cutlip, the social justification for public relations is the right for an organization to have a fair hearing of their point of view in the public forum, but to obtain such a hearing for their ideas requires a skilled advocate.[44]

Marketing and communications strategist, Ira Gostin, believes there is a code of conduct when conducting business and using public relations. Public relations specialists have the ability to influence society. Fact-checking and presenting accurate information is necessary to maintain credibility with employers and clients.[45]
Public Relations
Code of Ethics
The Public Relation Student Society of America has established a set of fundamental guidelines that people within the public relations professions should practice and use in their business atmosphere. These values are:

Advocacy: Serving the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for the clientele. This can occur by displaying the marketplace of ideas, facts and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.
Honesty: Standing by the truth and accuracy of all facts in the case and advancing those statements to the public.
Expertise: To become and stay informed of the specialized knowledge needed in the field of Public Relations. Taking that knowledge and improving the field through development, research and education. Meanwhile, professionals also build their understanding, credibility, and relationships to understand various audiences and industries.
Independence: Provide unbiased work to those that are represented while being accountable for all actions.
Loyalty: Stay devoted to the client while remembering that there is a duty to still serve the public interest.
Fairness: Honorably conduct business with any and all clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, media and general public. Respecting all opinions and right of free expression.[46]
International Public Relations Code of Ethics
Other than the ethics put in place in the United States of America there are also International ethics set to ensure proper and, legal worldwide communication. Regarding these ethics, there are broad codes used specifically for international forms of public relations, and then there are more specific forms from different countries. For example, some countries have certain associations to create ethics and standards to communication across their country.

The International Association of Business Communication (founded in 1971),[47] or also known as IABC, has its own set of ethics in order to enforce a set of guidelines that ensure communication internationality is legal, ethical, and is in good taste. Some principles that members of the board of IABC follow include.

Having proper and legal communication
Being understanding and open to other people's cultures, values, and beliefs
Create communication that is accurate, trusting, to ensure mutual respect and understanding
The IABC members use the following list of ethics in order to work to improve values of communication throughout the world:[47]

Being credible and honest
Keeping up with information to ensure accuracy of communication
Understanding free speech and respecting this right
Having sensitivity towards other people's thoughts, beliefs, and way of life
Not taking part in unethical behaviors
Obeying policies and laws
Giving proper credit to resources used for communication
Ensuring private information is protected (not used for personal gain) and if publicized, guarantee proper legal measures will be put in place.
Publishers of said communication do not accept gifts, benefits, payments etc.; for work, or their services
Creating results and spreading results that are attainable and they can deliver.
Being fully truthful to other people, and themselves.

Media is a major resource in the public relations career especially in news networks. That is why as a public relations specialist, having proper information is very important, and crucial to the society as a whole.
Spin
Main article: '''Spin''' (public relations)
Spin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit that is meant to manipulate the public, but since the 1950s has shifted to describing a "polishing of the truth."[48] Today, spin refers to providing a certain interpretation of information meant to sway public opinion.[49] Companies may use spin to create the appearance of the company or other events are going in a slightly different direction than they actually are.[48] Within the field of public relations, spin is seen as a derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as meaning blatant deceit and manipulation.[50][51] Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors."

In Stuart Ewen's PR! A Social History of Spin, he argues that public relations can be a real menace to democracy as it renders the public discourse powerless. Corporations are able to hire public relations professionals and transmit their messages through the media channels and exercise a huge amount of influence upon the individual who is defenseless against such a powerful force. He claims that public relations is a weapon for capitalist deception and the best way to resist is to become media literate and use critical thinking when interpreting the various mediated messages.[52]

According to Jim Hoggan, "public relations is not by definition 'spin'. Public relations is the art of building good relationships. You do that most effectively by earning trust and goodwill among those who are important to you and your business... Spin is to public relations what manipulation is to interpersonal communications. It's a diversion whose primary effect is ultimately to undermine the central goal of building trust and nurturing a good relationship."[53]

The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions (cherry picking), the so-called "non-denial denial", phrasing that in a way presumes unproven truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news.

'''Negative'''
See also: Negative campaigning
'''Negative public relations''', also called dark public relations (DPR), 'black hat PR' and in some earlier writing "Black PR", is a process of destroying the target's reputation and/or corporate identity. The objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the client's business or be a political rival. DPR may rely on IT security, industrial espionage, social engineering and competitive intelligence. Common techniques include using dirty secrets from the target, producing misleading facts to fool a competitor.[54][55][56][57] In politics, a decision to use negative PR is also known as negative campaigning.