Editing Intelligence (section)

== Definitions ==
There is controversy over how to define intelligence. Scholars describe its constituent abilities in various ways, and differ in the degree to which they conceive of intelligence as quantifiable.<ref name="LeggHutter2007">{{cite book
 |author1=S. Legg |author2=M. Hutter | chapter =        A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence
 | title =    Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms
 | volume =       157
 | pages =       17–24
 | url =          http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1565458
|isbn=978-1586037581 |year=2007 |publisher=IOS Press }}</ref>

A consensus report called ''[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]'', published in 1995 by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the [[American Psychological Association]], states:
{{Blockquote|Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.<ref name=Neisser1998>{{cite journal |last1=Neisser |first1=Ulrich |last2=Boodoo |first2=Gwyneth |last3=Bouchard |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Boykin |first4=A. Wade |last5=Brody |first5=Nathan |last6=Ceci |first6=Stephen J. |last7=Halpern |first7=Diane F. |last8=Loehlin |first8=John C. |last9=Perloff |first9=Robert |last10=Sternberg |first10=Robert J. |last11=Urbina |first11=Susana |author-link1=Ulrich Neisser |author-link10=Robert Sternberg |title=Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns |journal=American Psychologist |issn=0003-066X |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=77–101 |year=1996 |url=http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/pdfFiles/IQ_Neisser2.pdf |access-date=9 October 2014 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328064747/http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/pdfFiles/IQ_Neisser2.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}}

[[Psychologists]] and [[learning]] researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:140px;"| Researcher
! Quotation
|-
| [[Alfred Binet]]
| Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.<ref name=Binet1905>{{Cite book |last=Binet |first=Alfred |chapter=New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals |title=The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale |others=E.S. Kite (Trans.) |location=Baltimore |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |year=1916 |orig-date=1905 |pages=37–90 |chapter-url=http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm |quote=originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=19 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619145626/http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| [[David Wechsler]]
| The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wechsler |first=D |author-link=David Wechsler |title=The measurement of adult intelligence |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |location=Baltimore |year=1944 |isbn=978-0-19-502296-4 |oclc=219871557}}</ref>
|-
| [[Lloyd Humphreys]]
| "...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Humphreys, L. G. |year=1979 |title=The construct of general intelligence |journal=Intelligence |volume=3 |pages=105–120 |doi=10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6 |issue=2}}</ref>
|-
|[[Howard Gardner]]
|To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of [[problem solving]]—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.<ref name="isbn0465025102">{{Cite book |title=Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-465-02510-7 |oclc=221932479 |url=https://archive.org/details/framesofmindtheo00gard }}</ref>
|-
|[[Robert Sternberg]] & William Salter
|[[Goal-oriented|Goal-directed]] adaptive behavior.<ref name="isbn0521296870">{{Cite book |author=Sternberg RJ |author-link=Robert Sternberg |author2=Salter W |title=Handbook of human intelligence |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-521-29687-8 |oclc=11226466}}</ref>
|-
|[[Reuven Feuerstein]]
|The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".<ref>Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington, DC: National Education Associations</ref>
|-
|[[Shane Legg]] & [[Marcus Hutter]]
| A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments",<ref name="LeggHutter2007"/> which has been mathematically formalized.<ref name="LeggHutter2007b">{{cite journal
 |author1=S. Legg |author2=M. Hutter | title =        Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence
 | volume =       17
 | number =       4
 | journal =      Minds and Machines
 | pages =        391–444
 | year =         2007
 | doi =          10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
| arxiv =0712.3329|bibcode=2007arXiv0712.3329L |s2cid=847021 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Alexander Wissner-Gross]]
| F = T ∇ S<math>_\tau</math><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/alex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence |title=TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence |date=6 February 2014 |publisher=TED.com |access-date=2016-09-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904234706/http://www.ted.com/talks/alex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence |archive-date=4 September 2016  }}</ref>
"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".
|}