Editing Intensive farming (section)

==Techniques and technologies==

===Livestock===
{{main|Intensive animal farming}}

====Pasture intensification====
[[File:Cattle eating grass through barbed wire fence.jpg|thumb|Cow in [[Enclosure|enclosed]] [[pasture]] eating grass through wire fence]]

Pasture intensification is the improvement of [[pasture]] soils and grasses to increase the food production potential of livestock systems. It is commonly used to reverse pasture [[Land degradation|degradation]], a process characterized by loss of [[forage]] and decreased animal [[carrying capacity]] which results from [[overgrazing]], poor [[nutrient management]], and lack of [[soil conservation]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268445014|title=Degradação, recuperação e renovação de pastagens |last1=Zimmer |first1=Ademir |last2=Macedo|first2=Manuel|last3=Neivo Kichel |first3=Armindo |last4=Almeida |first4=Roberto|date=2012-11-01}}</ref> This degradation leads to poor pasture soils with decreased fertility and [[Soil water (retention)|water availability]] and increased rates of erosion, compaction, and [[Soil acidification|acidification]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=de Figueiredo|first1=Eduardo Barretto |last2=Jayasundara |first2=Susantha |last3=Bordonal |first3=Ricardo de Oliveira |last4=Berchielli|first4=Telma Teresinha |last5=Reis|first5=Ricardo Andrade |last6=Wagner-Riddle|first6=Claudia|last7=La Scala|first7=Newton Jr.|title=Greenhouse gas balance and carbon footprint of beef cattle in three contrasting pasture-management systems in Brazil |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=142 |pages=420–431 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.132|year=2017|bibcode=2017JCPro.142..420D |hdl=11449/177967 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Degraded pastures have significantly lower [[Agricultural productivity|productivity]] and higher [[carbon footprint]]s compared to intensified pastures.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1015344/indicativo-de-pastagens-plantadas-em-processo-de-degradacao-no-bioma-cerrado |title=Indicativo de pastagens plantadas em processo de degradação no bioma Cerrado |website=embrapa.br – Portal Embrapa |language=pt-BR |access-date=2018-03-28 |archive-date=2018-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615191647/https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1015344/indicativo-de-pastagens-plantadas-em-processo-de-degradacao-no-bioma-cerrado |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bogaerts |first1=Meghan |last2=Cirhigiri|first2=Lora |last3=Robinson |first3=Ian |last4=Rodkin |first4=Mikaela |last5=Hajjar|first5=Reem|last6=Junior|first6=Ciniro Costa |last7=Newton |first7=Peter |title=Climate change mitigation through intensified pasture management: Estimating greenhouse gas emissions on cattle farms in the Brazilian Amazon |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=162 |pages=1539–1550 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.130 |year=2017|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JCPro.162.1539B }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Cardoso |first1=Abmael S. |last2=Berndt |first2=Alexandre |last3=Leytem |first3=April |last4=Alves |first4=Bruno J. R. |last5=Carvalho |first5=Isabel das N.O. de |last6=Soares |first6=Luis Henrique de Barros |last7=Urquiaga |first7=Segundo |last8=Boddey |first8=Robert M. |title=Impact of the intensification of beef production in Brazil on greenhouse gas emissions and land use |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=143 |pages=86–96 |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2015.12.007 |year=2016 |bibcode=2016AgSys.143...86C |url=http://eprints.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/1679/1/1634.pdf |access-date=2018-12-24 |archive-date=2018-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225130127/https://eprints.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/1679/1/1634.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Talamini |first1=Edson|last2=Ruviaro |first2=Clandio Favarini |last3=Florindo |first3=Thiago José|last4=Florindo|first4=Giovanna Isabelle Bom De Medeiros |title=Improving feed efficiency as a strategy to reduce beef carbon footprint in the Brazilian Midwest region |journal=International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=379 |doi=10.1504/ijesd.2017.10007706 |year=2017}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Ruviaro |first1=Clandio F. |last2=Léis |first2=Cristiane Maria de |last3=Lampert |first3=Vinícius do N. |last4=Barcellos |first4=Júlio Otávio Jardim |last5=Dewes |first5=Homero |title=Carbon footprint in different beef production systems on a southern Brazilian farm: a case stud |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=96 |pages=435–443 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.037 |year=2015 |bibcode=2015JCPro..96..435R |hdl=10183/122628 |url=http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/127004/1/JCPv96p435.pdf |access-date=2019-12-14 |archive-date=2019-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231170258/https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/127004/1/JCPv96p435.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Management practices which improve soil health and consequently [[Poaceae|grass]] productivity include [[irrigation]], soil scarification, and the application of [[Agricultural lime|lime]], fertilizers, and [[pesticide]]s. Depending on the productivity goals of the target agricultural system, more involved restoration projects can be undertaken to replace [[Invasive species|invasive]] and under-productive grasses with grass species that are better suited to the [[soil]] and [[climate]] conditions of the region.<ref name=":0" /> These intensified grass systems allow higher [[Livestock grazing comparison|stocking rates]] with faster animal weight gain and reduced time to slaughter, resulting in more productive, carbon-efficient [[livestock]] systems.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Another technique to optimize [[Crop yield|yield]] while maintaining the [[Carbon cycle re-balancing|carbon balance]] is the use of integrated crop-livestock (ICL) and crop-livestock-forestry (ICLF) systems, which combine several ecosystems into one optimized agricultural framework.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277247305|title=Integrated systems: what they are, their advantages and limitations|last1=Balbino|first1=Luiz|last2=Neivo Kichel|first2=Armindo|last3=Bungenstab|first3=Davi|last4=Almeida|first4=Roberto|date=2014-03-01|isbn=9788570352972|pages=11–18}}</ref> Correctly performed, such production systems are able to create synergies potentially providing benefits to pastures through optimal plant usage, improved [[Fodder|feed]] and fattening rates, increased soil fertility and quality, intensified [[Nutrient cycle|nutrient cycling]], integrated [[pest control]], and improved [[biodiversity]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> The introduction of certain [[legume]] crops to pastures can increase [[Carbon sequestration|carbon accumulation]] and [[nitrogen fixation]] in soils, while their digestibility helps animal fattening and reduces [[methane emissions]] from [[enteric fermentation]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> ICLF systems yield beef cattle productivity up to ten times that of degraded pastures; additional crop production from [[maize]], [[sorghum]], and [[soybean]] harvests; and greatly reduced [[greenhouse gas]] balances due to forest carbon sequestration.<ref name=":3" />

In the Twelve Aprils grazing program for dairy production, developed by the [[USDA]]-[[Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education|SARE]], forage crops for dairy herds are planted into a [[perennial]] pasture.<ref>{{cite web|title=12 Aprils Dairy Grazing Manual|url=http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/SARE-Project-Products/Southern-SARE-Project-Products/12-Aprils-Grazing-Dairy-Manual|publisher=USDA-SARE|access-date=1 October 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006153834/http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/SARE-Project-Products/Southern-SARE-Project-Products/12-Aprils-Grazing-Dairy-Manual|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Rotational grazing====
{{Main|Managed intensive rotational grazing}}
[[File:NRCSMO02014 - Missouri (4753)(NRCS Photo Gallery).tif|thumb|[[Rotational grazing]] of cattle and sheep in [[Missouri]] with pasture divided into [[Paddock (field)|paddocks]], each grazed in turn for a short period and then rested]]

Rotational grazing<!--sometimes known as "management intensive rotational grazing",<ref name=PastProfit/>--> is a variety of foraging in which herds or flocks are regularly and systematically moved to fresh, rested grazing areas (sometimes called [[Paddock (field)|paddocks]]) to maximize the quality and quantity of forage growth. It can be used with cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, turkeys, ducks, and other animals. The herds graze one portion of pasture, or a paddock, while allowing the others to recover. Resting grazed lands allows the vegetation to renew energy reserves, rebuild shoot systems, and deepen root systems, resulting in long-term maximum [[biomass]] production.<ref name=PastProfit/><ref name=Manitoba/><ref>{{cite book |last=Beetz |first=A. E. |year=2004 |title=Rotational grazing: Livestock systems guide |publisher=National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA) }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Sanjari, G. |author2=Ghadiri, H. |author3=Ciesiolka, C. A. A. |author4=Yu, B. |date=2008 |title=Comparing the effects of continuous and time-controlled grazing systems on soil characteristics in Southeast Queensland |publisher=Soil Research 46 (CSIRO Publishing) |pages=48–358 |url=http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/21586/52232_1.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=2014-10-01 |archive-date=2013-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927213634/http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/21586/52232_1.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pasture systems alone can allow grazers to meet their energy requirements, but rotational grazing is especially effective because grazers thrive on the more tender younger plant stems. Parasites are also left behind to die off, minimizing or eliminating the need for de-wormers. With the increased productivity of rotational systems, the animals may need less supplemental feed than in continuous grazing systems. Farmers can therefore increase stocking rates.<ref name=PastProfit/><ref name="dx">{{cite journal |author1=Teague, W. R. |author2=Dowhowera, S. L. |author3=Bakera, S. A. |author4=Haileb, N. |author5=DeLaunea, P. B. |author6=Conovera, D. M. |title=Grazing management impacts on vegetation, soil biota and soil chemical, physical and hydrological properties in tall grass prairie |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |volume=141 |issue=3–4 |date=May 2011 |pages=310–322 |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2011.03.009|bibcode=2011AgEE..141..310T }}</ref>

==== Concentrated animal feeding operations ====
{{Main|Intensive animal farming}}
[[File:Florida chicken house.jpg|thumb|left|A commercial chicken house raising broiler pullets for meat]]

Intensive livestock farming or "factory farming", is the process of raising livestock in confinement at high stocking density.<ref>Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":
* Fraser, David. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0158e/a0158e00.HTM ''Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913214809/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0158e/a0158e00.htm |date=2011-09-13 }}, [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]], 2005.
* Turner, Jacky. [http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm#TopOfPage "History of factory farming"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116060714/http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm |date=2013-11-16 }}, United Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ... The intensive systems—called 'factory farms'—were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in barren and unnatural conditions."
* [[John Humphrys|Humphrys, John]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,475210,00.html Why the organic revolution had to happen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118163147/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,475210,00.html |date=2008-01-18 }}, ''[[The Observer]]'', April 21, 2001: "Nor is a return to 'primitive' farming practices the only alternative to factory farming and highly intensive agriculture."
* Baker, Stanley. [http://century.guardian.co.uk/1960-1969/Story/0,,105655,00.html "Factory farms – the only answer to our growing appetite?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106220300/http://century.guardian.co.uk/1960-1969/Story/0,,105655,00.html |date=2011-01-06 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', December 29, 1964: "Factory farming, whether we like it or not, has come to stay ... In a year which has been as uneventful on the husbandry side as it has been significant in economic and political developments touching the future of food procurement, the more far-seeing would name the growth of intensive farming as the major development." (Note: Stanley Baker was the Guardian's agriculture correspondent.)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm "Head to head: Intensive farming"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222181507/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm |date=2009-02-22 }}, [[BBC News]], March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an [[Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (Germany)|Agriculture Minister]] from the [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Green Party]]. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."</ref><ref>Sources discussing "industrial farming", "industrial agriculture" and "factory farming":
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y2772E/y2772e0c.htm "Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126040445/http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y2772E/y2772e0c.htm |date=2012-01-26 }}, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "Factory farming" refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm "Head to head: Intensive farming"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222181507/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm |date=2009-02-22 }}, BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."</ref><ref name="Kaufmann">Kaufmann, Mark. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/25/AR2007012501785.html "Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016115415/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/25/AR2007012501785.html |date=2011-10-16 }}, ''The Washington Post'', January 26, 2007.</ref><ref name="mc1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1046184.stm "EU tackles BSE crisis"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711010659/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1046184.stm |date=2017-07-11 }}, BBC News, November 29, 2000.</ref><ref>"Is factory farming really cheaper?" in ''New Scientist'', Institution of
Electrical Engineers, New Science Publications, University of Michigan, 1971, p. 12.</ref> "[[Concentrated animal feeding operations]]" (CAFO), or "intensive livestock operations", can hold large numbers (some up to hundreds of thousands) of cows, hogs, turkeys, or chickens, often indoors. The essence of such farms is the concentration of livestock in a given space. The aim is to provide maximum output at the lowest possible cost and with the greatest level of food safety.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nierenberg |first=Danielle |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62104329 |title=Happier meals : rethinking the global meat industry |date=2005 |publisher=Worldwatch Institute |others=Lisa Mastny, Worldwatch Institute |isbn=1-878071-77-7 |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=62104329}}</ref> The term is often used pejoratively.<ref name="encyc-organic">{{cite book|last=Duram|first=Leslie A. |title=Encyclopedia of Organic, Sustainable, and Local Food|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35963-7|page=139}}</ref> CAFOs have dramatically increased the production of food from animal husbandry worldwide, both in terms of total food produced and efficiency.

Food and water is delivered to the animals, and therapeutic use of antimicrobial agents, vitamin supplements, and growth hormones are often employed. Growth hormones are not used on chickens nor on any animal in the [[European Union]]. Undesirable behaviors often related to the stress of confinement led to a search for docile breeds (e.g., with natural dominant behaviors bred out), physical restraints to stop interaction, such as individual cages for chickens, or physical modification such as the [[debeaking]] of chickens to reduce the harm of fighting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Boeckel|first1=Thomas P.|last2=Brower|first2=Charles|last3=Gilbert|first3=Marius|last4=Grenfell|first4=Bryan T.|last5=Levin|first5=Simon A.|last6=Robinson|first6=Timothy P.|last7=Teillant|first7=Aude|last8=Laxminarayan|first8=Ramanan|date=2015-05-05|title=Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=112|issue=18|pages=5649–5654|doi=10.1073/pnas.1503141112|issn=0027-8424|pmc=4426470|pmid=25792457|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.5649V|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2023-04-23 |title=Intensive farming |url=https://tuoitho.edu.vn/intensive-farming-4ofbbz4p/ |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=tuoitho.edu.vn |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705180055/https://tuoitho.edu.vn/intensive-farming-4ofbbz4p/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The CAFO designation resulted from the 1972 U.S. [[Federal Clean Water Act]], which was enacted to protect and restore lakes and rivers to a "fishable, swimmable" quality. The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] identified certain animal feeding operations, along with many other types of industry, as "point source" [[groundwater]] polluters. These operations were subjected to regulation.<ref>Sweeten, John et al. [http://www.lpes.org/cafo/01FS_History.pdf "Fact Sheet #1: A Brief History and Background of the EPA CAFO Rule"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217125833/http://www.lpes.org/cafo/01FS_History.pdf |date=2008-12-17 }}. MidWest Plan Service, Iowa State University, July 2003.</ref>

[[File:Hog confinement barn interior.jpg|thumb|Intensively farmed pigs]]

In 17 states in the U.S., isolated cases of [[groundwater contamination]] were linked to CAFOs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sustainableagriculture.net/our-work/conservation-environment/clean-water-act/|title=CAFOs & Clean Water Act|access-date=2013-11-05|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105034639/http://sustainableagriculture.net/our-work/conservation-environment/clean-water-act/ |archive-date=2013-11-05}}</ref> The U.S. federal government acknowledges the [[waste disposal]] issue and requires that [[animal waste]] be stored in [[manure lagoon|lagoons]]. These lagoons can be as large as {{convert|7.5|acre|m2}}. Lagoons not protected with an impermeable liner can leak into groundwater under some conditions, as can runoff from manure used as fertilizer. A lagoon that burst in 1995 released 25 million gallons of nitrous sludge in North Carolina's [[New River (eastern North Carolina)|New River]]. The spill allegedly killed eight to ten million fish.<ref>Orlando, Laura. ''McFarms Go Wild'', ''Dollars and Sense'', July/August 1998, cited in Scully, Matthew. ''Dominion'', St. Martin's Griffin, p. 257.</ref>

The large concentration of animals, animal waste, and dead animals in a small space poses ethical issues to some consumers. [[Animal rights]] and [[animal welfare]] activists have charged that intensive animal rearing is cruel to animals.

===Crops===
{{Main|Intensive crop farming}}

The [[Green Revolution]] transformed farming in many developing countries. It spread technologies that had already existed, but had not been widely used outside of industrialized nations. These technologies included "miracle seeds", pesticides, irrigation, and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.<ref name="brown">Brown, 1970. <br></ref>

==== Seeds ====
In the 1970s, scientists created high-yielding varieties of maize, [[wheat]], and rice. These have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge (fall over) before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. [[Norin 10 wheat]], a variety developed by [[Orville Vogel]] from Japanese [[dwarf wheat]] varieties, was instrumental in developing wheat cultivars. [[IR8]], the first widely implemented high-yielding rice to be developed by the [[International Rice Research Institute]], was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen".<ref name="ir8">{{cite web|title=Rice Varieties|work=IRRI Knowledge Bank|url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/nepal/RiceVarieties.htm |access-date=2006-07-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713032524/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/nepal/RiceVarieties.htm |archive-date=2006-07-13}}</ref>

With the availability of molecular genetics in ''[[Arabidopsis]]'' and rice the mutant genes responsible (''reduced height (rht)'', ''gibberellin insensitive (gai1)'' and ''slender rice (slr1)'') have been cloned and identified as cellular signalling components of [[gibberellic acid]], a [[phytohormone]] involved in regulating stem growth via its effect on cell division. [[Photosynthate partitioning|Photosynthate investment]] in the stem is reduced dramatically in shorter plants and nutrients become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the yield effect of chemical fertilizers.

High-yielding varieties outperformed traditional varieties several fold and responded better to the addition of irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers. [[Heterosis|Hybrid vigour]] is utilized in many important crops to greatly increase yields for farmers. However, the advantage is lost for the progeny of the [[F1 hybrids]], meaning seeds for annual crops need to be purchased every season, thus increasing costs and profits for farmers.

====Crop rotation====
{{Main|Crop rotation}}
[[File:Crops Kansas AST 20010624.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Satellite image of circular crop fields in [[Haskell County, Kansas]], in late June 2001. Healthy, growing crops of [[maize|corn]] and [[sorghum]] are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). [[Wheat]] is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed under or have lain in fallow for the year.]]

Crop rotation or crop sequencing is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of [[crops]] in the same space in sequential seasons for benefits such as avoiding pathogen and pest buildup that occurs when one species is continuously cropped. Crop rotation also seeks to balance the nutrient demands of various crops to avoid [[soil nutrient]] depletion. A traditional component of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of legumes and [[green manure]] in sequence with cereals and other crops. Crop rotation can also improve [[soil structure]] and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. A related technique is to plant multi-species [[cover crops]] between commercial crops. This combines the advantages of intensive farming with continuous cover and [[polyculture]].

====Irrigation====
{{Main|Irrigation}}
[[File:PivotIrrigationOnCotton.jpg|thumb|Overhead irrigation, [[center pivot irrigation|center-pivot]] design]]

Crop irrigation accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water use.<ref>Pimentel, Berger, et al., "Water resources: agricultural and environmental issues", BioScience 54.10 (Oct 2004), p909</ref> [[Surface irrigation|Flood irrigation]], the oldest and most common type, is typically unevenly distributed, as parts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. [[Irrigation#Overhead (sprinkler) irrigation|Overhead irrigation]], using center-pivot or lateral-moving sprinklers, gives a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. [[Drip irrigation]] is the most expensive and least-used type, but delivers water to plant roots with minimal losses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Drip Irrigation System for sustainable agriculture |url=https://www.agriculturelandusa.com/2023/07/Drip-Irrigation-system.html |access-date=2024-03-07 |website=Agriculture land USA}}</ref>

[[Water catchment]] management measures include recharge pits, which capture rainwater and runoff and use it to recharge groundwater supplies. This helps in the replenishment of groundwater wells and eventually reduces soil erosion. Dammed rivers creating [[reservoirs]] store water for irrigation and other uses over large areas. Smaller areas sometimes use irrigation ponds or groundwater.

====Weed control====
{{Main|Weed control}}

In agriculture, systematic weed management is usually required, often performed by machines such as cultivators or liquid herbicide sprayers. [[Herbicides]] kill specific targets while leaving the crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often based on plant [[hormones]]. [[Weed control]] through [[herbicide]] is made more difficult when the weeds become resistant to the herbicide. Solutions include:
* Cover crops (especially those with [[allelopathic]] properties) that out-compete weeds or inhibit their regeneration
* Multiple herbicides, in combination or in rotation
* Strains genetically engineered for herbicide tolerance
* Locally adapted strains that tolerate or out-compete weeds
* Tilling
* [[Ground cover]] such as [[mulch]] or plastic
* Manual removal
* Mowing
* Grazing
* Burning

====Terracing====
[[File:Terrace field yunnan china denoised.jpg|right|thumb|Terrace rice fields in [[Yunnan Province]], China]]
{{Main|Terrace (agriculture)}}

In [[agriculture]], a [[Terrace (agriculture)|terrace]] is a leveled section of a [[hill]]y cultivated area, designed as a method of soil conservation to slow or prevent the rapid [[surface runoff]] of irrigation water. Often such land is formed into multiple terraces, giving a stepped appearance. The human landscapes of rice cultivation in terraces that follow the natural contours of the escarpments, like [[contour ploughing]], are a classic feature of the island of [[Bali]] and the [[Banaue Rice Terraces]] in [[Banaue, Ifugao]], [[Philippines]]. In [[Peru]], the [[Tahuantinsuyu|Inca]] made use of otherwise unusable slopes by building [[drystone wall]]s to create terraces known as [[Andén]]s.

====Rice paddies====
{{Main|Paddy field}}

A '''paddy field''' is a flooded parcel of [[arable land]] used for growing rice and other [[Aquatic plant|semiaquatic crops]]. Paddy fields are a typical feature of rice-growing countries of [[East Asia|east]] and [[southeast Asia]], including Malaysia, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Taiwan, Indonesia, [[India]], and the Philippines. They are also found in other rice-growing regions such as [[Piedmont]] (Italy), the [[Camargue]] (France), and the [[Artibonite Valley]] (Haiti). They can occur naturally along [[river]]s or [[marshes]], or can be constructed, even on hillsides. They require large water quantities for irrigation, much of it from flooding. It gives an environment favourable to the strain of rice being grown, and is hostile to many [[species]] of [[weed]]s. As the only [[draft animal]] species which is comfortable in [[wetlands]], the [[water buffalo]] is in widespread use in Asian rice paddies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ghgonline.org/methanerice.htm|title=Methane – Rice|website=ghgonline.org|access-date=2007-05-26|archive-date=2018-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019211656/http://www.ghgonline.org/methanerice.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

A recent development in the intensive production of rice is the [[System of Rice Intensification]].<ref>{{cite web |title=SRI Concepts and Methods Applied to Other Crops |url=http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/aboutsri/othercrops/ |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=1 October 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084825/http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/aboutsri/othercrops/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The System of Crop Intensification Agroecological Innovations for Improving Agricultural Production, Food Security, and Resilience to Climate Change |url=http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/aboutsri/othercrops/SCImonograph_SRIRice2014.pdf |publisher=SRI International Network and Resources Center at [[Cornell University]] |access-date=1 October 2014 |archive-date=26 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926025949/http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/aboutsri/othercrops/SCImonograph_SRIRice2014.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Developed in 1983 by the [[France|French]] [[Jesuit]] [[Priest|Father]] [[Henri de Laulanie|Henri de Laulanié]] in [[Madagascar]],<ref name=henri>[http://www.tropicultura.org/text/v29n3/183.pdf Intensive Rice Farming in Madagascar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824031335/http://www.tropicultura.org/text/v29n3/183.pdf |date=2015-08-24 }} by H. De Laulanié, in [http://www.tropicultura.org/ Tropicultura] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103616/http://www.tropicultura.org/ |date=2014-10-06 }}, 2011, 29, 3, 183–187</ref> by 2013 the number of smallholder farmers using the system had grown to between 4 and 5 million.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vidal |first=John |title=India's rice revolution |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/16/india-rice-farmers-revolution |work=[[The Observer]] |publisher=The Guardian |date=16 February 2013 |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=19 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119042538/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/16/india-rice-farmers-revolution |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Aquaculture===
{{Main|Aquaculture}}

Aquaculture is the cultivation of the natural products of [[water]] ([[fish]], [[shellfish]], [[algae]], [[seaweed]], and other aquatic organisms). Intensive aquaculture takes place on land using tanks, ponds, or other controlled systems, or in the ocean, using cages.<ref name="AmericanHeritageDef">{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/aquaculture|title=Agriculture|author=Answers|website=Answers.com|access-date=2007-05-21|archive-date=2017-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914220730/http://www.answers.com/topic/aquaculture|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Sustainability===
{{further|Sustainable farming|Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture|Zero waste agriculture|Organic farming}}

Intensive farming practices which are thought to be [[Sustainable farming|sustainable]]{{By whom|date=May 2024}} have been developed to slow the deterioration of agricultural land and even regenerate [[soil health]] and [[ecosystem services]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} These developments may fall in the category of [[organic farming]], or the integration of organic and conventional agriculture.

Pasture cropping involves planting grain crops directly into grassland without first applying herbicides. The perennial grasses form a living mulch understory to the grain crop, eliminating the need to plant [[cover crop]]s after [[harvest]]. The pasture is intensively grazed both before and after grain production. This intensive system yields equivalent farmer profits (partly from increased livestock forage) while building new [[topsoil]] and [[Carbon sequestration|sequestering]] up to 33 tons of CO<sub>2</sub>/ha/year.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Leu|first1=Andre|title=Mitigating Climate Change With Soil Organic Matter in Organic Production Systems|url=http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ditcted2012d3_en.pdf|website=Trade and environment review 2013, Commentary V|pages=22–32|publisher=UNCTAD|access-date=28 September 2014|archive-date=9 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509063021/https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditcted2012d3_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bradley|first=Kirsten|title=Why Pasture Cropping is such a Big Deal|date=7 December 2010|url=http://milkwood.net/2010/12/07/why-pasture-cropping-is-such-a-big-deal/|publisher=Milkwood|access-date=10 January 2014|archive-date=10 January 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140110182113/http://milkwood.net/2010/12/07/why-pasture-cropping-is-such-a-big-deal/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Biointensive]] agriculture focuses on maximizing efficiency such as per unit area, energy input and water input.

[[Agroforestry]] combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to create more integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.

[[Intercropping]] can increase yields or reduce inputs and thus represents (potentially sustainable) agricultural intensification. However, while total yield per unit land area is often increased, yields of any single crop often decrease. There are also challenges to farmers who rely on farming equipment optimized for [[monoculture]], often resulting in increased labor inputs.

[[Vertical farming]] is intensive crop production on a large scale in urban centers, in multi-story, artificially-lit structures, for the production of low-calorie foods like herbs, [[microgreens]], and lettuce.

An integrated farming system is a progressive, [[sustainable agriculture]] system such as [[zero waste agriculture]] or [[integrated multi-trophic aquaculture]], which involves the interactions of multiple species. Elements of this integration can include:
* Intentionally introducing flowering plants into agricultural ecosystems to increase pollen-and nectar-resources required by natural enemies of insect pests<ref>[http://ifs.orst.edu/insect.html Oregon State University – Integrated Farming Systems – Insectary Plantings – Enhancing Biological Control with Beneficial Insectary Plants] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615043253/http://ifs.orst.edu/insect.html |date=2006-06-15 }}</ref>
* Using crop rotation and cover crops to suppress nematodes in potatoes<ref>[http://ifs.orst.edu/pubs/nscc.html Oregon State University – Integrated Farming Systems – Nematode Suppression by Cover Crops] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905154352/http://ifs.orst.edu/pubs/nscc.html |date=2008-09-05 }}</ref>
* Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs ([[fertilizer]]s, [[food]]) for another.