Editing J'ouvert (section)

==History==
The origins of J'ouvert can be traced back to Trinidad. French traditions from the island's original Carnival, African and Afro-Trinidadian traditions from Canboulay, and various social and political influences maybe have all played a role in shaping J'ouvert.

=== Trinidad's Carnival ===
J'ouvert's is rooted in the history of Carnival in Trinidad. The French brought Carnival to Trinidad in the 1780s, a time of [[Atlantic slave trade|slavery]].<ref name=":02">{{cite web |date=15 December 2014 |title="Mama Dis is Mas" |url=https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Carnival |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211235544/https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Carnival |archive-date=11 February 2017 |access-date=1 September 2019 |publisher=National Library and Information System Authority}}</ref> Their [[Pre-Lent|pre-lenten]] Carnival included hunting parties, dinners, [[Ball (dance event)|balls]], and [[Masquerade ball|masquerading]].<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last1=Henry |first1=Frances |author-link=Frances Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPfADwAAQBAJ&q=french&pg=PA57 |title=Carnival Is Woman: Feminism and Performance in Caribbean Mas |last2=Plaza |first2=Dwaine |date=2019-12-30 |publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-4968-2548-3 |language=en}}</ref> Enslaved Africans, who were banned from participating in Carnival, are said to have staged their own mini-carnivals, but using their own [[rituals]] and [[folklore]]<ref name=":02" /> and imitating or mocking their masters' masquerade balls.<ref name=":03"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-15 |title=Jouvert: Carnival high times, from Trinidad to the diaspora |url=https://pan-african-music.com/en/jouvert-in-the-diaspora/ |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=PAM - Pan African Music |language=en-US}}</ref> These imitation carnivals and mocking of the ruling class likely gave rise to J'ouvert traditions, as parodying of the upper class is an important aspect of J'ouvert tradition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kerrigan |first=Dylan |date=2005-01-01 |title=Creatures of the mas |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-71/creatures-mas |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Caribbean Beat Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref> Alternatively, J'ouvert masquerading traditions may come from directly a French Carnival tradition that took the form of "after-dinner raids on private homes". Friendly raiders would disguise themselves in humorous costumes that were often topical, [[parody]]ing political or social events,<ref name=":02" /> and would remain disguised until their identities were guessed correctly.<ref name=":02" /> Costumes with political and social commentary are still seen in J'ouvert today.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=La Rose |first=Michael |date=2019 |title="The City Could Burn Down, We Jammin' Still!": The History and Tradition of Cultural Resistance in the Art, Music, Masquerade and Politics of the Caribbean Carnival: Caribbean Quarterly |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00086495.2019.1682348 |journal=Caribbean Quarterly |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=491–512 |doi=10.1080/00086495.2019.1682348|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Canboulay ===
Before Emancipation, enslaved Africans in Trinidad had celebrated Canboulay, a night-time harvest festival characterized by drums, singing, [[calinda]] dancing, chanting, and [[stick-fighting]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Cowley |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHFOemkETacC&dq=%C2%A0j'ouvert+canboulay&pg=PA229 |title=Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso: Traditions in the Making |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65389-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2022 |title=J'ouvert: Genesis Immersive Experience (booklet) |url=https://citylore.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/JGIE-BOOKLET-TO-CITY-LORE-AUGUST-11-2023.pdf |website=City Lore}}</ref><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":112">{{Cite book |last=Riggio |first=Milla Cozart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAmCAgAAQBAJ&dq=j'ouvert+jouvay&pg=PA288 |title=Carnival: Culture in Action – The Trinidad Experience |date=2004-10-14 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-48780-6 |language=en}}</ref> The term "Canboulay" comes from the French ''cannes broullee'', meaning "burnt [[Sugarcane|cane]]".<ref name=":8" /> It may refer to the putting out of cane fires,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Canboulay's freedom cry rings out on 50th Black Power anniversary {{!}} Loop Trinidad & Tobago |url=https://tt.loopnews.com/content/canboulays-freedom-cry-rings-out-50th-black-power-anniversary |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Loop News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Turner |first1=Victor Witter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeBZ7HDV8zIC&dq=cannes+brulee&pg=PA300 |title=The Anthropology of Experience |last2=Bruner |first2=Edward M. |date=1986 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-01249-5 |language=en}}</ref> the pre-harvest cane burning for pest control,<ref name=":112"/> or the burning of cane as an act of [[sabotage]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Cathy |date=2021 |title=Black Femme Rising: Cosplay and Playing Mas as New Narratives of Transgression |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1333520 |journal=American Journal of Play |language=en |volume=13 |pages=320–355 |issn=1938-0399}}</ref> during the time of slavery. [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|Slavery was abolished]] in Trinidad and other British territories in 1833, with Emancipation taking effect 1 August 1834.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The West Indian colonies and emancipation |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/parliament-and-the-american-colonies-before-1765/the-west-indian-colonies-and-emancipation/ |website=UK Parliament}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hamilton-Davis |first=Ryan |date=2024-04-19 |title=Trinidad and Tobago to celebrate African Emancipation Day on August 1 |url=https://newsday.co.tt/2024/04/19/trinidad-and-tobago-to-celebrate-african-emancipation-day-on-august-1/ |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Trinidad and Tobago Newsday |language=en-US}}</ref> After Emancipation, Canboulay developed into a festival for freed slaves and former indentured laborers to celebrate freedom. It was celebrated annually on [[Emancipation Day]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Munro |first=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIVmoBuZ6AAC&q=canboulay |title=Different Drummers: Rhythm and Race in the Americas |date=2010-07-16 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-26283-6 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1881, the British colonial government on Trinidad attempted to ban Canboulay. This resulted in disturbances known as the [[Canboulay riots|'''Camboulay Riots''']], which took place in [[Port of Spain]], [[San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago|San Fernando]], and [[Princes Town]]. It is said that people smeared themselves with oil or paint to avoid being recognized,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-15 |title=Jouvert: Carnival high times, from Trinidad to the diaspora |url=https://pan-african-music.com/en/jouvert-in-the-diaspora/ |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=PAM - Pan African Music |language=en-US}}</ref> or may have been covered in black [[soot]] from burning cane.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2001-01-01 |title=Trinidad Carnival — come turn yourself on |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-57/come-turn-yourself-on |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Caribbean Beat Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref> Today, covering bodies in oil, paint, or other substances is a distinctive tradition of J'ouvert.<ref name=":92">{{cite web |title=Traditional Mas Characters - Jab Molassie |url=http://www.ncctt.org/new/index.php/about-ncc/departments/regional/trad-carnival-characters/312-traditional-mas-characters-jab-molassie.html |access-date=1 September 2019 |publisher=National Carnival Commission of Trinidad and Tobago}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last1=Green |first1=Garth L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dGSnsW6rA6EC&dq=trinidad+jab+jab+j'ouvert&pg=PA229 |title=Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural Politics of a Transnational Festival |last2=Scher |first2=Philip W. |date=2007-03-28 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11672-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":102">{{cite web |date=18 August 2011 |title=A Carnival Theme Rooted in our Traditions by Dr. Nicole Phillip |url=https://groundationgrenada.com/2011/08/18/a-carnival-theme-rooted-in-our-traditions-by-dr-nicole-phillip/ |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=GroundationGrenada.com}}</ref> This tradition was likely carried forward in remembrance of the Canboulay Riots.<ref name=":12" />

=== Peace Preservation Act ===
In 1884, the colonial government passed the [[Peace Preservation Act]]''',''' which prohibited public carrying of torches, drumming, blowing horns, and stick-fighting (or the assembly of ten or more people with sticks).<ref>{{Cite web |date=Jan 30, 1884 |title=Submits Ordinance No. 1 of 1884: Peace Preservation. To empower the Governor to prohibit the public carrying of lighted torches at the Carnival, and for the preservation of the peace. Proclamation approved. |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C10744614 |website=UK National Archives}}</ref> Many J'ouvert traditions may come from reactions to the prohibitions of the Peace Preservation Act. For instance, [[tamboo bamboo]] was introduced in the late 1880s as substitute for the drums and sticks.<ref name=":112"/> Tamboo bamboo bands developed and became the primary [[percussion instrument]] of Carnival.<ref name=":15"/><ref name=":112"/> Additional instruments were developed to replace the banned drums, and percussion was achieve through use of metal and other items as well.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Gall |first=Sharon Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc3FBQAAQBAJ&dq=j'ouvert+1884+time&pg=PT20 |title=Intellectual Property, Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Property Protection: Cultural Signifiers in the Caribbean and the Americas |date=2014-01-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-02664-5 |language=en}}</ref> The history of J'ouvert's improvised instruments is celebrated today with the use of whistles, cowbells, bottles, and home-made instruments.<ref name=":15" />

The Peace Preservation Act also established the official start of Carnival as 6:00 A.M.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Immigration and the Political Economy of Home |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt5w102068&chunk.id=ss2.07&toc.id=fm03&brand=ucpress |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Onyebadi |first=Uche |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkNxEAAAQBAJ&q=Sunday+midnight+to+6:00+a.m.+Monday |title=Political Messaging in Music and Entertainment Spaces across the Globe. Volume 1. |date=2022-09-06 |publisher=Vernon Press |isbn=978-1-64889-471-8 |language=en}}</ref> This likely explains the early-morning start time of J'ouvert. Canboulay had traditionally been a nighttime celebration,<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":112"/> but after the Peace Preservation Act effectively banned Canboulay, Afro-Trinidadians began celebrating a reinterpretation of Canboulay beginning at 6:00 A.M. on Carnival Monday.<ref name=":16" /> Some historians claim that revelers took advantage of the pre-dawn darkness and began festivities before 6:00 A.M.—and that this secret and rebellious celebration is the origin of J'ouvert.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stuempfle |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aG2p6Adax0QC&dq=j'ouvert+soucouyant&pg=PA26 |title=The Steelband Movement: The Forging of a National Art in Trinidad and Tobago |date=1995 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3329-2 |language=en}}</ref> Today, J'ouvert in the Caribbean typically begins before dawn.<ref name=":32"/>

=== Other origins ===
The pre-dawn tradition of J'ouvert may have roots in Caribbean folklore. For instance, there is a local Trinidadian legend about a [[soucouyant]], who sheds her skin at night and consumes the blood of her victims.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahye |first=Molly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNnfAAAAMAAJ |title=Golden Heritage: The Dance in Trinidad and Tobago |date=1978 |publisher=Heritage Cultures Limited |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Errol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFINAAAAYAAJ |title=The Trinidad Carnival: Mandate for a National Theatre |date=1972 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-78000-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Alleyne-Dettmers |first=Patricia Tamara |date=1995 |title=Political Dramas in the Jour Ouvert Parade in Trinidad Carnaval |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25613310 |journal=Caribbean Studies |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=326–338 |jstor=25613310 |issn=0008-6533}}</ref> She must reenter her skin before dawn, but is unable to do so if someone sprinkles salt on her skin.<ref name=":14" /> According to legend, she will cry out "''Jouvay, jou paka ouvay''?" ("Daybreak, are you coming?) as dawn approaches.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":03" />