Editing Jade (section)

==History==
===East Asia===
====Prehistoric and historic China====
{{Main|Chinese jade}}
[[File:Jade Drinking Vessel at Nanyue King Museum.jpg|thumb|Jade Drinking Vessel in Rhino Horn Shape, [[Han dynasty#Western Han|Western Han]]/[[Nanyue]] (202 BC{{snd}}111 BC)]]
During [[Neolithic]] times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and [[ceremonial]] jade items were the now-depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the [[Yangtze River Delta]] ([[Liangzhu culture]] 3400–2250 BC) and in an area of the [[Liaoning province]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] ([[Hongshan culture]] 4700–2200 BC).<ref>Liu, Li 2003:3–15</ref> [[Mount Du|Dushan Jade]] (a rock composed largely of anorthite feldspar and zoisite) was being mined as early as 6000 BC. In the Yin Ruins of the Shang Dynasty (1600 to 1050 BC) in Anyang, Dushan Jade ornaments were unearthed in the tomb of the Shang kings.

Jade was considered to be the "imperial gem" and was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items to [[jade burial suit]]s.  From the earliest [[Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese dynasties]] to the present, the jade deposits most used were not only those of [[Khotan]] in the Western Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]] but other parts of China as well, such as Lantian, [[Shaanxi]]. There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in small quarries and as pebbles and boulders in the [[river]]s flowing from the [[Kuen-Lun mountain range]] eastward into the [[Takla-Makan desert]] area. The river jade collection is concentrated in the [[Yarkand River|Yarkand]], the White Jade ([[Yurungkash River|Yurungkash]]) and Black Jade ([[Karakash River|Karakash]]) Rivers. From the [[Kingdom of Khotan]], on the southern leg of the [[Silk Road]], yearly tribute payments consisting of the most precious white jade were made to the Chinese Imperial court and there worked into ''objets d'art'' by skilled artisans as jade had a status-value exceeding that of [[gold]] or [[silver]]. Jade became a favourite material for the crafting of Chinese scholars' objects, such as rests for calligraphy brushes, as well as the mouthpieces of some [[opium pipe]]s, due to the belief that breathing through jade would bestow longevity upon smokers who used such a pipe.<ref>Martin, Steven. ''The Art of Opium Antiques''. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai, 2007</ref>

Jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, lavender, pink, [[Orange (colour)|orange]], yellow, red, black, white, near-colorless and brown colors was imported from [[Myanmar|Burma]] to China in quantity only after about 1800. The vivid white to green variety became known as ''fei cui'' (翡翠) or kingfisher jade, due to its resemblance to the feathers of the kingfisher bird.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansford |first1=S. Howard |title=Jade and the kingfisher |journal=Oriental Art |date=1948 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=11–17}}</ref> That definition was later expanded to include all other colors that the rock is found in.<ref name="Kunz">{{cite news|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25628880 |title=The Cabinet • Talks with Experts • VI. Mr. George F. Kunz on art works in jade and other hard stones |first=George |last=Kunz |work=[[The Art Amateur]] |date=December 1888 |jstor=25628880 |access-date=December 5, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Lotus Gemology"/> It quickly became almost as popular as nephrite and a favorite of Qing Dynasty's aristocracy, while scholars still had strong attachment to nephrite (white jade, or Hetian jade), which they deemed to be the symbol of a nobleman.

In the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had a special significance, comparable with that of gold and [[diamond]]s in the West.<ref name=gem>[http://www.gemstone.org/gem-by-gem/english/jade.html Jade]. Gemstone.org</ref> Jade was used for the finest objects and cult figures, and for grave furnishings for high-ranking members of the imperial family.<ref name=gem/> Due to that significance and the rising middle class in China, in 2010 the finest jade when found in nuggets of "mutton fat" jade – so-named for its marbled white consistency – could sell for $3,000 an ounce, a tenfold increase from a decade previously.<ref name="Andrew Jabobs">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/21/world/asia/21jade.html?_r=2&hp& |title=Jade From China's West Surpasses Gold in Value |first=Andrew |last=Jacobs |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 20, 2010 |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=October 13, 2012}}</ref>

The Chinese character 玉<ref>[[:zh:玉]]{{Circular reference|date=December 2024}}</ref> (yù) is used to denote the several types of stone known in English as "jade" (e.g. 玉器, jadewares), such as [[jadeite]] (硬玉, 'hard jade', another name for 翡翠) and [[nephrite]] (軟玉, 'soft jade'). While still in use, the terms "hard jade" and "soft jade" resulted from a mistranslation by a Japanese geologist, and should be avoided.<ref name="Shi">{{cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Guanghai |title="软 玉 "一 词 由 来 、争 议 及 去 "软 "建 议 [Origin and controversy of the term "软玉 (Ruan Yu soft jade)" and a proposal to remove the word "软 (Ruan soft)" from "Ruan Yu"] |journal=Earth Science Frontiers |date=2019 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=163–170 |doi=10.13745/j.esf.sf.2019.5.25 |url=https://www.earthsciencefrontiers.net.cn/CN/10.13745/j.esf.sf.2019.5.25 |access-date=5 December 2023}}</ref>

But because of the value added culturally to jades throughout Chinese history, the word has also come to refer more generally to precious or ornamental stones,<ref>[http://www.gia.edu/cs/Satellite?blobcol=gfile&blobheader=application%2Fpdf&blobheadername1=Content-Disposition&blobheadername2=MDT-Type&blobheadername3=Content-Type&blobheadervalue1=attachment%3B+filename%3DGG-Gem-News-International&blobheadervalue2=abinary%3B+charset%3DUTF-8&blobheadervalue3=application%2Funknown&blobkey=id&blobtable=GIA_DocumentFile&blobwhere=1355958258903&ssbinary=true Gem News], [[Gems & Gemology]]{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> and is very common in more symbolic usage as in phrases like 拋磚引玉/抛砖引玉 (lit. "casting a brick (i.e. the speaker's own words) to draw a jade (i.e. pearls of wisdom from the other party)"), 玉容 (a beautiful face; "jade countenance"), and 玉立 (slim and graceful; "jade standing upright"). The character has a similar range of meanings when appearing as a radical as parts of other characters.

==== Prehistoric and historic Japan ====
Jade in Japan was used for jade bracelets. It was a symbol of wealth and power. Leaders also used jade in rituals. It is the national stone of Japan.
Examples of use in Japan can be traced back to the early Jomon period about 7,000 years ago. XRF analysis results have revealed that all jade used in Japan since the Jomon period is from [[Itoigawa]].
The jade culture that blossomed in ancient Japan respected green ones, and jade of other colors was not used. There is a theory that the reason why the meaning is that it was believed that the color of green enables the reproduction of fertility, the life, and the soul of the earth.

{{See also|ja:糸魚川のヒスイ}}

==== Prehistoric and historic Korea ====
[[File:Korea-Silla kingdom-Gold crown from Hwangnam Daechong-No.191-01D.jpg|thumb|upright|Golden [[Crowns of Silla|crown]] with jade pendants from [[Silla]], fifth or sixth century AD, in the [[National Museum of Korea]]. ]]
The use of jade and other greenstone was a long-term tradition in [[Korea]] ({{circa|850 BC}} – AD 668). Jade is found in small numbers of [[pit-house]]s and [[burials]]. The craft production of small [[comma]]-shaped and tubular "jades" using materials such as jade, [[microcline]], [[jasper]], etc., in southern Korea originates from the Middle [[Mumun Pottery Period]] ({{circa|850}}–550 BC).<ref>Bale, Martin T. and Ko, Min-jung. Craft Production and Social Change in Mumun Pottery Period Korea. ''Asian Perspectives'' 45(2):159–187, 2006.</ref> Comma-shaped jades are found on some of the gold [[Crowns of Silla|crowns]] of [[Silla]] royalty ({{circa|300}}/400–668 AD) and sumptuous [[elite]] burials of the [[Korean Three Kingdoms]]. After the state of Silla united the Korean Peninsula in 668, the widespread popularisation of death rituals related to [[Buddhism]] resulted in the decline of the use of jade in burials as prestige mortuary goods.

===South Asia===
====India====
[[File:Dagger India Louvre MR13434.jpg|thumb|upright|Dagger with jade hilt, India, 17th–18th century. [[Louvre]] ]]
The [[Jainism|Jain]] [[Derasar|temple]] of [[Kolanpak]] in the [[Nalgonda district]], [[Telangana]], [[India]] is home to a {{convert|5|ft|m|adj=on}} high [[sculpture]] of [[Mahavira]] that is carved entirely out of jade. India is also noted for its craftsman tradition of using large amounts of green [[Serpentine group|serpentine]] or ''false jade'' obtained primarily from Afghanistan in order to fashion jewellery and ornamental items such as sword hilts and dagger handles.<ref name=Hunter/>

The [[Salar Jung Museum]] in [[Hyderabad]] has [[Jade collection of the Salar Jung Museum|a wide range of jade]] hilted daggers, mostly owned by the former [[Hyderabad State|Sultans of Hyderabad.]]

===Southeast Asia===
====Myanmar====
Today, it is estimated that [[Myanmar]] is the origin of upwards of 70% of the world's supply of high-quality jadeite. Most of the jadeite mined in Myanmar is not cut for use in Myanmar, instead being transported to other nations, primarily in [[Asia]], for use in jewelry and other products. The jadeite deposits found in [[Kachinland]], in Myanmar's northern regions is the highest quality jadeite in the world, considered precious by sources in China going as far back as the 10th century.

[[File:Bicephalous pendant (Jade), Artefacts of Phu Hoa site(Dong Nai province) 01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huỳnh]] [[white jade]] ''[[lingling-o]]'' double-headed pendant from [[Vietnam]]]]
Jadeite in Myanmar is primarily found in the "Jade Tract" located in Lonkin Township in Kachin State in northern Myanmar which encompasses the alluvial region of the Uyu River between the 25th and 26th parallels. Present-day extraction of jade in this region occurs at the Phakant-gyi, Maw Sisa, Tin Tin, and Khansee mines. Khansee is also the only mine that produces maw sit sit, a kosmochlor-rich jade rock. Mines at Tawmaw and Hweka are mostly exhausted. From 1964 to 1981, mining was exclusively an enterprise of the Myanmar government. In 1981, 1985, and 1995, the Gemstone laws were modified to allow increasing private enterprise. In addition to this region, there are also notable mines in the neighboring Sagaing District, near the towns of Nasibon and Natmaw and Hkamti. Sagaing is a district in Myanmar proper, not a part of the ethic Kachin State.

====Southeast Asia====
{{See also|Lingling-o}}

Carved nephrite jade was the main commodity trade of an extensive prehistoric trading network connecting multiple areas in Southeast Asia. The nephrite jade was mined in eastern Taiwan by the animist Taiwanese indigenous peoples and processed mostly in the [[Philippines]] by the animist indigenous Filipinos. Some were also processed in [[Vietnam]], while the peoples of [[Brunei]], [[Cambodia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]],  [[Singapore]], and [[Thailand]] also participated in the massive animist-led nephrite jade trading network, where other commodities were also traded. Participants in the network at the time had a majority animist population. The maritime road is one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. It was in existence for at least 3,000 years, where its peak production was from 2000 BCE to 500 CE, older than the Silk Road in mainland Eurasia. It began to wane during its final centuries from 500 CE until 1000 CE. The entire period of the network was a golden age for the diverse animist societies of the region.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan’s relations with the Philippines date back millenia, so it’s a mystery that it’s not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref><ref name="Hung et al">Hung, H. C.; Iizuka, Y.; Bellwood, P.; Nguyen, K. D.; Bellina, B.; Silapanth, P.; and Manton, J. H. (2007). "Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 19745–19750.</ref>

===Others===
====Māori====
{{main|Pounamu}}
[[File:Ear pendant (peka peka), Maori people, Honolulu Museum of Art, 3351.JPG|thumb|[[Māori people|Māori]] greenstone double-headed pendant (''[[pekapeka]]'') from [[New Zealand]]]]
[[File:Pounamu 3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Māori people|Māori]] ''[[hei matau]]'' jade pendant]]
Nephrite jade in [[New Zealand]] is known as ''[[pounamu]]'' in the [[Māori language]] (often called "greenstone" in [[New Zealand English]]), and plays an important role in [[Culture of the Māori|Māori culture]]. It is considered a ''[[taonga]]'', or treasure, and therefore protected under the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], and the exploitation of it is restricted and closely monitored. It is found only in the [[South Island]] of New Zealand, known as ''Te Wai Pounamu'' in [[Māori language|Māori]]—"The [land of] Greenstone Water", or ''Te Wahi Pounamu''—"The Place of Greenstone".

Pounamu [[taonga]] increase in ''[[Mana (Oceanian mythology)|mana]]'' (prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations. These are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements.

Tools, weapons and ornaments were made of it; in particular [[adze]]s, the '[[Mere (weapon)|mere]]' (short club), and the [[hei-tiki]] (neck pendant). Nephrite [[jewellery]] of Maori design is widely popular with locals and tourists, although some of the jade used for these is now imported from [[British Columbia]] and elsewhere.<ref>Salt, Donn, 1992, ''Stone, Bone and Jade – 24 New Zealand Artists'', David Bateman Ltd., Auckland.</ref>

Pounamu taonga include tools such as toki (adzes), whao (chisels), whao whakakōka (gouges), ripi pounamu (knives), [[Scraper (archaeology)|scrapers]], awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools include [[hei matau|matau]] (fishing hooks) and lures, spear points, and [[kākā poria]] (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such as [[Mere (weapon)|mere]] (short handled clubs); and ornaments such as pendants ([[hei-tiki]], [[hei matau]] and pekapeka), ear pendants (kuru and kapeu), and cloak pins.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Pounamu taonga | work = Collections Online | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | url = http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search.aspx?advanced=colCollectionType%3a%22Taonga+Maori%22+colMaterials%3a%22pounamu%22+colCollectionGroup%3aCH&imagesonly=on | access-date = 25 November 2010 | archive-date = 5 November 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131105011814/http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search.aspx?advanced=colCollectionType%3A%22Taonga%20Maori%22%20colMaterials%3A%22pounamu%22%20colCollectionGroup%3ACH&imagesonly=on | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | last = Keane | first = Basil | title = Pounamu – jade or greenstone – Implements and adornment | encyclopedia = Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand | publisher = Ministry for Culture & Heritage | date = 2 March 2009 | url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/pounamu-jade-or-greenstone/4 | access-date = 21 November 2010}}</ref>
Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants (hei kakï) even after they were no longer used as tools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/document/3154|title=Collections Online – Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa|website=collections.tepapa.govt.nz|access-date=26 January 2019}}</ref>

====Mesoamerica====
{{Main|Jade use in Mesoamerica}}
[[File:Mayan Jade.jpg|thumb|Jadeite [[Gorget|pectoral]] from the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]n Classic period ({{convert|195|mm|in|disp=or|abbr=on}} high)]]

Jade was a rare and valued material in [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]]. The only source from which the various [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[culture]]s, such as the [[Olmec]] and [[Maya civilization|Maya]], could obtain jade was located in the [[Motagua River]] valley in [[Guatemala]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7yCwDwAAQBAJ&dq=Cerro+de+las+Navajas+jade&pg=PT331|title = The Aztecs, Maya, and their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica, Third Edition|isbn = 9781315418919|last1 = Weaver|first1 = Muriel Porter|date = 16 September 2019| publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Jade was largely an [[elite]] good, and was usually carved in various ways, whether serving as a medium upon which [[hieroglyph]]s were inscribed, or shaped into [[symbol]]ic [[figurine]]s. Generally, the material was highly symbolic, and it was often employed in the performance of [[ideology|ideological]] practices and [[ritual]]s.

====Canada====
Jade was first identified in Canada by [[Chinese Canadians|Chinese settlers]] in 1886 in British Columbia.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} At this time jade was considered worthless because the settlers were searching for gold.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} Jade was not commercialized in Canada until the 1970s. The mining business Loex James Ltd., which was started by two Californians, began commercial mining of Canadian jade in 1972.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Talbot|first1=Matthew|title=In Depth Green With Jade|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ja05/indepth/resources.asp|website=Canadian Geographic|access-date=6 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106212246/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ja05/indepth/resources.asp|archive-date=6 November 2014}}</ref>

Mining is done from large boulders that contain bountiful deposits of jade. Jade is exposed using diamond-tipped core drills in order to extract samples. This is done to ensure that the jade meets requirements. Hydraulic spreaders are then inserted into cleavage points in the rock so that the jade can be broken away. Once the boulders are removed and the jade is accessible, it is broken down into more manageable 10-tonne pieces using water-cooled diamond saws. The jade is then loaded onto trucks and transported to the proper storage facilities.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Jade?|url=http://www.polarjade.ca/canadajade.html|website=Polar Jade|access-date=6 November 2014|archive-date=19 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919044938/http://www.polarjade.ca/canadajade.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Russia====
Russia imported jade from China for a long time, but in the 1860s its own jade deposits were found in Siberia. Today, the main deposits of jade are located in Eastern Siberia, but jade is also extracted in the [[Ural Mountains#Polar Ural|Polar Urals]] and in the [[Krasnoyarsk Krai|Krasnoyarsk territory]] (Kantegirskoye and Kurtushibinskoye deposits). Russian raw jade reserves are estimated at 336 tons.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bestwonderstore.com/2020/11/19/russian-nephrite-mining-and-value/ |title=Russian Nephrite: Mining and Value |access-date=2020-11-29 |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019115855/https://bestwonderstore.com/2020/11/19/russian-nephrite-mining-and-value/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref>
Russian jade culture is closely connected with such jewellery production as [[Fabergé]], whose workshops combined the green stone with gold, diamonds, emeralds, and rubies.

==== Siberia and Mongolia ====
In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a strong belief among many [[Siberians]] and [[Mongolians]], which stemmed from tradition, that jade was part of a class of sacred objects that had life.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Ceram |first=C. W. |title=Gods, Graves, and Scholars: The Story of Archaeology |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1967 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=400 |translator-last=Garside |translator-first=E. B. |author-link=C. W. Ceram |translator-last2=Wilkins |translator-first2=Sophie}}</ref>