Editing John Bardeen (section)

==Career and research==

===World War II service===
From 1941 to 1944, Bardeen headed the group working on [[Naval mine|magnetic mines]] and [[torpedo]]es and mine and torpedo countermeasures at the [[Naval Ordnance Laboratory]]. During this period, his wife Jane gave birth to a son (Bill, born in 1941) and a daughter (Betsy, born in 1944).<ref>Pines, David. "[http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/bardeen-john.pdf John Bardeen]". (2013). </ref>

===Bell Labs===
[[File:Bardeen Shockley Brattain 1948.JPG|thumb|John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs, 1948]]
In October 1945, Bardeen began work at [[Bell Labs]] as a member of a [[solid-state physics]] group led by [[William Shockley]] and chemist Stanley Morgan. Other personnel working in the group were [[Walter Brattain]], physicist [[Gerald Pearson]], chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. He moved his family to [[Summit, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/truegeniuslifesc0000hodd |url-access=registration |title=True Genius: The Life and Science of John Bardeen |publisher=Joseph Henry Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/truegeniuslifesc0000hodd/page/117 117] |quote=Soon, however, life in Summit would become easy and rich for the Bardeens. |isbn=9780309084086 |last1=Daitch |first1=Vicki |last2=Hoddeson |first2=Lillian |year= 2002 }}</ref>

The assignment of the group was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass [[vacuum tube]] amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a [[semiconductor]] to affect its conductivity. These experiments mysteriously failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states, meeting almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent and ideas were freely exchanged.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/crystalfirebirth00rior |url-access=registration |title=Crystal Fire |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/crystalfirebirth00rior/page/127 127] |isbn=9780393041248 |last1=Riordan |author1-link=Michael Riordan (physicist)|first1=Michael |last2=Hoddeson |first2=Lillian |year=1997 }}</ref> By the winter of 1946, they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to ''[[Physical Review]]''. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with [[electrolyte]]s. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily and suggested that they use ''glycol borate'' (gu), a viscous chemical that did not evaporate. Finally, they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/crystalfirebirth00rior |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/crystalfirebirth00rior/page/132 132] |title=Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=9780393041248 |last1=Riordan |first1=Michael |last2=Hoddeson |first2=Lillian |author2-link=Lillian Hoddeson |year=1997 }}</ref> put a voltage on a droplet of gu placed across a [[p–n junction]].

===Invention of the transistor===
{{main|Transistor|History of the transistor}}
[[File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg|thumb|340px|A stylized replica of the first transistor invented at Bell Labs on December 23, 1947]]

On December 23, 1947, Bardeen and Brattain were working without Shockley when they succeeded in creating a [[point-contact transistor]] that achieved amplification. By the next month, [[Bell Labs]]' patent attorneys started to work on the patent applications.<ref name="John Bardeen 2">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/bardeen/bardeen2.html |title=Biography of John Bardeen 2 |access-date=December 24, 2007 |publisher=PBS }}</ref>

Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered that Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and patented in 1930 by [[Julius Lilienfeld]], who filed his [[MESFET]]-like patent in Canada on October 22, 1925.<ref>{{patent|US|1745175|"Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" first filing in Canada on October 22, 1925}}</ref>

Shockley publicly took the lion's share of the credit for the invention of the transistor; this led to a deterioration of Bardeen's relationship with him.<ref>Diane Kormos Buchwald. ''American Scientist'' 91.2 (Mar.–Apr. 2003): 185–186.</ref> Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Shockley eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, essentially blocking the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.<ref>''Crystal Fire'' p. 278</ref><ref>R. Kessler. "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/magazine/1997/04/06/absent-at-the-creation/2a432ee5-b1e3-49b9-93f2-ad821d1832dd/ Absent at the Creation]", ''Washington Post Magazine'', 1997.</ref>

The "transistor" (a [[portmanteau]] of "transconductance" and "resistor") was 1/50 the size of the [[vacuum tube]]s it replaced in televisions and radios, used far less power, was far more reliable, and it allowed electrical devices to become more compact.<ref name="washpost"/>

===University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign===
[[File:Bardeen plaque uiuc.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A commemorative plaque remembering John Bardeen and the theory of superconductivity, at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]]]]

By 1951, Bardeen was looking for a new job. Fred Seitz, a friend of Bardeen, convinced the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]] to make Bardeen an offer of $10,000 a year. Bardeen accepted the offer and left Bell Labs,<ref name="John Bardeen 2" /> joining the engineering and physics faculties at Illinois in 1951, where he was professor of electrical engineering and of physics.<ref name="knightridder">{{cite news |title=Nice Guys Can Finish As Geniuses at University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign. |url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2003-01-25/business/0301250052_1_semiconductor-lasers-john-bardeen-true-genius|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208160304/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2003-01-25/business/0301250052_1_semiconductor-lasers-john-bardeen-true-genius|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 8, 2015|work=Chicago Tribune: Knight Ridder News Service |date=January 25, 2003 |access-date=August 3, 2007}}</ref>

At Illinois, he established two major research programs, one in the electrical engineering department and one in the physics department. The research program in the electrical engineering department dealt with both experimental and theoretical aspects of semiconductors, and the research program in the physics department dealt with theoretical aspects of macroscopic quantum systems, particularly superconductivity and quantum liquids.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physics.uiuc.edu/history/bardeen.htm |title=Biography at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |access-date=November 6, 2007 |publisher=The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011195706/http://physics.uiuc.edu/history/bardeen.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=October 11, 2007}}</ref>

He was an active professor at Illinois from 1951 to 1975 and then became ''professor emeritus''.<ref name="washpost" /> In his later life, Bardeen remained active in academic research, during which time he focused on understanding the flow of electrons in [[charge density wave]]s (CDWs) through metallic linear chain compounds. His proposals<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bardeen |first=John |title=Theory of non-ohmic conduction from charge-density waves in NbSe3 |journal=Physical Review Letters |year=1979 |volume=42 |issue=22 |pages=1498–1500 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.42.1498 |bibcode=1979PhRvL..42.1498B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bardeen |first=John |title=Tunneling theory of charge-density-wave depinning |journal=Physical Review Letters |year=1980 |volume=45 |issue=24 |pages=1978–1980 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.45.1978 |bibcode=1980PhRvL..45.1978B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=J. H. Miller, Jr. |author2=J. Richard |author3=J. R. Tucker |author4=John Bardeen |title=Evidence for tunneling of charge-density waves in TaS3 |journal=Physical Review Letters |year=1983 |volume=51 |issue=17 |pages=1592–1595 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.51.1592 |bibcode=1983PhRvL..51.1592M }}</ref> that CDW electron transport is a collective quantum phenomenon (see [[Macroscopic quantum phenomena]]) were initially greeted with skepticism.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pines |first=David |title=Biographical Memoirs: John Bardeen |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |year=2009 |volume=153 |issue=3 |pages=287–321 |url=http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/5BardeenBio1530306.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524035311/http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/5BardeenBio1530306.pdf |archive-date=May 24, 2013}}</ref>  However, experiments reported in 2012<ref>{{cite journal|author1=M. Tsubota |author2=K. Inagaki |author3=T. Matsuura |author4=S. Tanda |title=Aharonov-Bohm effect in charge-density wave loops with inherent temporal current switching|journal=EPL|year=2012|volume=97|issue=5|page=57011|doi=10.1209/0295-5075/97/57011|arxiv=0906.5206 |bibcode=2012EL.....9757011T|s2cid=119243023 }}</ref> show oscillations in CDW current versus magnetic flux through tantalum trisulfide rings, similar to the behavior of superconducting quantum interference devices (see [[SQUID]] and [[Aharonov–Bohm effect]]), lending credence to the idea that collective CDW electron transport is fundamentally quantum in nature.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=J. H. Miller, Jr. |author2=A.I. Wijesinghe |author3=Z. Tang |author4=A.M. Guloy |title=Correlated quantum transport of density wave electrons|journal=Physical Review Letters |year=2012 |volume=108 |issue=3 |page=036404 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.036404 |arxiv=1109.4619 |bibcode=2012PhRvL.108c6404M |pmid=22400766|pmc=11524153 |s2cid=29510494 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=J.H. Miller, Jr. |author2=A.I. Wijesinghe |author3=Z. Tang |author4=A.M. Guloy |title=Coherent quantum transport of charge density waves|journal=Physical Review B |volume=87 |issue=11 |pages=115127 |arxiv=1212.3020|bibcode=2013PhRvB..87k5127M|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.87.115127|year=2013|s2cid=119241570 }}</ref> (See [[quantum mechanics]].) Bardeen continued his research throughout the 1980s, and published articles in ''[[Physical Review Letters]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bardeen |first=John |title=Theory of size effects in depinning of charge-density waves |journal=Physical Review Letters |year=1990 |volume=64 |issue=19 |pages=2297–2299 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.64.2297 |pmid=10041638 |bibcode=1990PhRvL..64.2297B }}</ref> and ''[[Physics Today]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bardeen|first=John|title=Superconductivity and other macroscopic quantum phenomena|journal=Physics Today|year=1990|volume=43|issue=12|pages=25–31|doi=10.1063/1.881218|url=http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v43/i12/p25_s1|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415170644/http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v43/i12/p25_s1|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 15, 2013|bibcode=1990PhT....43l..25B|url-access=subscription}}</ref> less than a year before he died.

A collection of Bardeen's personal papers are held by the University of Illinois Archives.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archon.library.illinois.edu/?p=collections/findingaid&id=690&q=&rootcontentid=92733 |title=Finding Aid for John Bardeen Papers, 1910–91 |access-date=October 2, 2021 |publisher=The University of Illinois Archives}}</ref>

===Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956===
In 1956, John Bardeen shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] with [[William Shockley]] of Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments and [[Walter Brattain]] of Bell Telephone Laboratories "''for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect''".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/index.html |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 |access-date=November 6, 2007 |publisher=The Nobel Foundation }}</ref>

At the Nobel Prize ceremony in [[Stockholm]], Brattain and Shockley received their awards that night from [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden|King Gustaf VI Adolf]]. Bardeen brought only one of his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony. King Gustav chided Bardeen because of this, and Bardeen assured the King that the next time he would bring all his children to the ceremony. He kept his promise.<ref name="John Bardeen 3">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/bardeen/bardeen3.html |title=Biography of John Bardeen 3 |access-date=December 24, 2007 |publisher=PBS}}</ref>

===BCS theory===
{{main|BCS theory}}
In 1957, Bardeen, in collaboration with [[Leon Cooper]] and his doctoral student [[John Robert Schrieffer]], proposed the standard theory of [[superconductivity]] known as the [[BCS theory]] (named for their initials).<ref name="washpost"/>

===Josephson effect controversy===
Bardeen became interested in superconducting [[Quantum tunnelling|tunnelling]] in the summer of 1960 after consulting for the [[General Electric Research Laboratory]] in Schenectady, New York where he learned about experiments done by [[Ivar Giaever]] at the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] which suggested that electrons from a normal material could tunnel into a superconducting one.{{r|trueGenius|pp=222-223}}

In June 8, 1962, [[Brian Josephson]], then 23, submitted to [[Physics Letters]] his prediction of a super-current flow across a barrier,<ref>{{cite journal |first1=B. D. |last1=Josephson |author1-link=Brian Josephson |year=1962 |title=Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling |journal=Phys. Lett. |volume=1 |issue=7 |pages=251–253 |doi=10.1016/0031-9163(62)91369-0 |bibcode=1962PhL.....1..251J}}</ref> effect which later became known as the [[Josephson effect]]. Bardeen challenged Josephson's theory on a note in his own paper received ten days later by [[Physical Review Letters]]{{r|trueGenius|pp=222-225}}:<ref>{{cite journal |first1=John |last1=Bardeen |date=15 August 1962 |title=Tunneling Into Superconductors |url=https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.147 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=147–149 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.147|bibcode=1962PhRvL...9..147B |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<blockquote>
In a recent note, Josephson uses a somewhat similar formulation to discuss the possibility of superfluid flow across the tunneling region, in which no quasi-particles are created. However, as pointed out by the author (reference 3), pairing does not extend into the barrier, so that there can be no such superfluid flow.
</blockquote>

The matter was further discussed on the 8th [[International Conference on Low Temperature Physics]] held September 16 to 22, 1962 at [[Queen Mary University of London]]. While Josephson was presenting his theory, Bardeen rose to describe his objections. After an intense debate both men were unable to reach a common understanding, and at points Josephson repeatedly asked Bardeen, "Did you calculate it? No? I did."{{r|trueGenius|pp=225-226}}

In 1963, experimental evidence and further theoretical clarifications were discovered supporting the Josephson effect, notably in a paper by [[Philip W. Anderson]] and John Rowell from [[Bell Labs]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=P. W. |last1=Anderson |first2=J. M. |last2=Rowell |date=15 March 1963 |title=Probable Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect |url=https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.10.230 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=230–232 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.10.230|bibcode=1963PhRvL..10..230A |url-access=subscription }}</ref> After this, Bardeen came to accept Josephson's theory and publicly withdrew his previous opposition to it at a conference held in August 1963. Bardeen also invited Josephson as a postdoc in Illinois for the academic year of 1965–1966, and later nominated Josephson and Giaever for the Nobel Prize in Physics, which they received in 1973.{{r|trueGenius|pp=226}}

===Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972===
In 1972, Bardeen shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] with [[Leon N Cooper]] of [[Brown University]] and [[John Robert Schrieffer]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]] "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1972/index.html |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972 |access-date=December 19, 2007 |publisher=The Nobel Foundation}}</ref> This was Bardeen's second Nobel Prize in Physics. He became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in the same field.<ref name="chisuntimes2">{{cite news |title= Physicist John Bardeen, 82, transistor pioneer, Nobelist |url= http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4038249.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121102062652/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4038249.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= November 2, 2012|newspaper=Chicago Sun-Times|date=January 31, 1991 |access-date=August 3, 2007}}</ref> 

Bardeen brought his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm.<ref name="John Bardeen 3"/> Bardeen gave much of his Nobel Prize money to fund the [[Fritz London]] Memorial Lectures at [[Duke University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phy.duke.edu/~hm/flondonprizeawards.html |title=Fritz London Memorial Prize |access-date=December 24, 2007 |publisher=Duke University }}</ref>

In the late 1960s, Bardeen felt that Cooper and Schrieffer deserved the Nobel prize for BCS. He was concerned that they might not be awarded because of the [[Nobel Committee]]'s reticence to award the same person twice, which would be his case as a co-author of the theory. Bardeen nominated scientists who worked on superconducting [[quantum tunneling|tunneling]] effects such as the [[Josephson effect]] for the prize in 1967: [[Leo Esaki]], [[Ivar Giaever]] and [[Brian Josephson]]. He recognized that because the tunneling developments depended on superconductivity, it would increase the chances that BCS itself would be awarded first. He also reasoned that the Nobel Committee had a predilection for multinational teams, which was the case for his tunneling nominees, each being from a different country. Bardeen renewed the nominations in 1971, 1972, when BCS received the prize, and finally 1973, when tunneling was awarded.{{r|trueGenius|p=230-231}}

He is the only double [[Nobel Prize in Physics|laureate in physics]], and one of three [[:Category:Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards|double laureates]] of the same prize; the others are [[Frederick Sanger]] who won the 1958 and 1980 Prizes in Chemistry and [[Karl Barry Sharpless]] who won the 2001 and 2022 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Prizes in chemistry]].<ref name=nobelfacts>{{cite web | title=Nobel Prize Facts | publisher=Nobelprize.org | url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/ | access-date=1 September 2015}}</ref>

===Other awards===
In addition to being awarded the Nobel prize twice, Bardeen has numerous other awards including:
* 1952 [[Franklin Institute]]'s [[Stuart Ballantine Medal]].
* 1954 elected a member of the United States [[National Academy of Sciences]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Bardeen |url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/58010.html |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=www.nasonline.org}}</ref>
* 1958 elected to the [[American Philosophical Society]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=John+Bardeen&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>
* 1959 elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=April 15, 2011}}</ref>
* 1965 [[National Medal of Science]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.cfm?recip_id=30 |title=The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details – US National Science Foundation (NSF) |publisher=nsf.gov |access-date=February 25, 2014}}</ref>
* 1971 [[IEEE Medal of Honor]] for "his profound contributions to the understanding of the conductivity of solids, to the invention of the transistor, and to the microscopic theory of superconductivity."
* Elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1973|Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1973]].<ref name=formemrs/><ref name=royalsoc>{{cite web|title=Fellowship of the Royal Society 1660–2015 |url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015185820/https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml |archive-date=October 15, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1975 [[Franklin Medal]].
* On January 10, 1977, John Bardeen was presented with the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] by President [[Gerald Ford]]. He was represented at the ceremony by his son, William Bardeen.
* Bardeen was one of 11 recipients given the Third Century Award from President [[George H. W. Bush]] in 1990 for "exceptional contributions to American society" and was granted a [[Lomonosov Gold Medal|gold medal]] from the [[Soviet Academy of Sciences]] in 1988.
* 1987 Golden Plate Award of the [[Academy of Achievement|American Academy of Achievement]]<ref>{{cite web|title= Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement |website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration}}</ref>

===Xerox===
Bardeen was also an important adviser to [[Xerox|Xerox Corporation]].  Though quiet by nature, he took the uncharacteristic step of urging Xerox executives to keep their California research center, [[Xerox PARC]], afloat when the parent company was suspicious that its research center would amount to little.