Editing Jupiter (section)

== Formation and migration ==
{{Main|Grand tack hypothesis}}
{{See also|Formation and evolution of the Solar System}}
Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth.<ref name="Kruijer_et_al_2017"/> Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the [[Frost line (astrophysics)|snow line]]: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]] such as water to condense into solids.<ref name="Bosman_et_al_2019"/> First forming a solid core, the planet then accumulated its [[Primary atmosphere|gaseous atmosphere]]. Therefore, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed.<ref name="dangelo2021"/> During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents.<ref name=Kruijer_et_al_2017/> When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula.<ref name=Kruijer_et_al_2017/> Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4{{Nbsp}}million years.<ref name=Kruijer_et_al_2017>{{cite journal | title=Age of Jupiter inferred from the distinct genetics and formation times of meteorites | last1=Kruijer | first1=Thomas S. | last2=Burkhardt | first2=Christoph | last3=Budde | first3=Gerrit | last4=Kleine | first4=Thorsten | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=114 | issue=26 | pages=6712–6716 | date=June 2017 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1704461114 | pmid=28607079 | pmc=5495263 | bibcode=2017PNAS..114.6712K | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="dangelo2021"/> Since Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been suggested that the [[Solar System]] might have been a [[star system|system of multiple protostars]] early in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|its formation]], with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and Jupiter does not qualify as a [[protostar]] or [[brown dwarf]] since it does not have enough mass to fuse hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bodenheimer |first1=Peter |last2=D'Angelo |first2=Gennaro |last3=Lissauer |first3=Jack J. |last4=Fortney |first4=Jonathan J. |last5=Saumon |first5=Didier |date=June 3, 2013 |title=Deuterium Burning In Massive Giant Planets And Low-mass Brown Dwarfs Formed By Core-nucleated Accretion |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/120 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=770 |issue=2 |pages=120 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/120 |arxiv=1305.0980 |bibcode=2013ApJ...770..120B |issn=0004-637X}}</ref><ref name="DROBYSHEVSKI 1974 pp. 35–36">{{cite journal | last=Drobyshevski | first=E. M. | title=Was Jupiter the protosun's core? | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=250 | issue=5461 | year=1974 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/250035a0 | pages=35–36| bibcode=1974Natur.250...35D | s2cid=4290185 }}</ref>

According to the "[[grand tack hypothesis]]", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly {{Convert|3.5|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=on|abbr=unit}} from the Sun. As the young planet [[Accretion (astrophysics)|accreted]] mass, its interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and the [[orbital resonance]]s from [[Saturn]] caused it to migrate inwards.<ref name=Bosman_et_al_2019>{{cite journal| title=Jupiter formed as a pebble pile around the N2 ice line| last1=Bosman | first1=A. D. | last2=Cridland | first2=A. J. | last3=Miguel | first3=Y.| journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics| volume=632 | id=L11 | pages=5 | date=December 2019| arxiv=1911.11154 | bibcode=2019A&A...632L..11B | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201936827 | s2cid=208291392}}</ref><ref name="Walsh_etal_2011">{{cite journal | last1=Walsh| first1=K. J.| last2=Morbidelli| first2=A.| last3=Raymond| first3=S. N.| last4=O'Brien| first4=D. P.| last5=Mandell| first5=A. M.| year=2011| title=A low mass for Mars from Jupiter's early gas-driven migration| journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]| volume=475| issue=7355| pages=206–209| doi=10.1038/nature10201| bibcode=2011Natur.475..206W| arxiv=1201.5177| pmid=21642961| s2cid=4431823}}</ref> This upset the orbits of several [[super-Earth]]s orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively.<ref name=tack/> Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in a 3:2 [[mean motion resonance]] at approximately {{Convert|1.5|AU|e6km e6mi|abbr=unit}} from the Sun.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chametla |first1=Raúl O |last2=D'Angelo |first2=Gennaro |last3=Reyes-Ruiz |first3=Mauricio |last4=Sánchez-Salcedo |first4=F Javier |date=March 2020 |title=Capture and migration of Jupiter and Saturn in mean motion resonance in a gaseous protoplanetary disc |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=492 |issue=4 |pages=6007–6018 |arxiv=2001.09235 |doi=10.1093/mnras/staa260 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations.<ref name=tack>{{cite journal |title=Jupiter's decisive role in the inner Solar System's early evolution |first=Konstantin |last=Batygin |doi=10.1073/pnas.1423252112 |pmid=25831540 |pmc=4394287 |volume=112 |issue=14 |pages=4214–4217 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |arxiv=1503.06945 |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.4214B|year=2015 |author-link=Konstantin Batygin |doi-access=free }}</ref> All of this happened over a period of 3–6{{Nbsp}}million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years.<ref name="Walsh_etal_2011"/><ref>{{cite journal
| last1=Haisch Jr.
| first1=K. E.
| last2=Lada
| first2=E. A.
| last3=Lada
| first3=C. J.
| title=Disc Frequencies and Lifetimes in Young Clusters
| year=2001
| journal=The Astrophysical Journal
| volume=553
| issue=2
| pages=153–156| doi=10.1086/320685
| arxiv=astro-ph/0104347
| bibcode=2001ApJ...553L.153H
| s2cid=16480998
| url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/496876
}}</ref> Jupiter's migration from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/150324-jupiter-super-earth-collisions-planets-astronomy-sky-watching
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314171306/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/150324-jupiter-super-earth-collisions-planets-astronomy-sky-watching/
|archive-date=March 14, 2017
|title=Observe: Jupiter, Wrecking Ball of Early Solar System
|last=Fazekas
|first=Andrew
|date=March 24, 2015
|work=National Geographic
|access-date=April 18, 2021
|url-status=dead}}</ref>

There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition.<ref name="zube_2019">{{cite journal | last1=Zube | first1=N. | last2=Nimmo | first2=F. | last3=Fischer | first3=R.| last4=Jacobson | first4=S.|title=Constraints on terrestrial planet formation timescales and equilibration processes in the Grand Tack scenario from Hf-W isotopic evolution|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|year=2019|volume=522|issue=1|pages=210–218|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2019.07.001 |pmid=32636530|pmc=7339907|arxiv = 1910.00645 |bibcode = 2019E&PSL.522..210Z |s2cid=199100280}}</ref> Jupiter would likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the [[solar nebula]].<ref name="dangelo_marzari_2012">{{cite journal | last1=D'Angelo | first1=G. | last2=Marzari | first2=F. |title=Outward Migration of Jupiter and Saturn in Evolved Gaseous Disks|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|year=2012|volume=757|issue=1|page=50 (23 pp.)|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/757/1/50 |arxiv = 1207.2737 |bibcode = 2012ApJ...757...50D |s2cid=118587166}}</ref> Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present-day planet.<ref name=dangelo2021>{{cite journal | last1=D'Angelo | first1=G. | last2=Weidenschilling | first2=S. J. | last3=Lissauer | first3=J. J. | last4=Bodenheimer | first4=P. | title=Growth of Jupiter: Formation in disks of gas and solids and evolution to the present epoch | journal=Icarus |year=2021 | volume=355 | page=114087 | arxiv=2009.05575 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114087 | bibcode=2021Icar..35514087D | s2cid=221654962 }}</ref> Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much further out, such as {{Convert|18|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit}}.<ref name=Pirani_et_al_2019>{{cite journal | title=Consequences of planetary migration on the minor bodies of the early solar system | last1=Pirani | first1=S. | last2=Johansen | first2=A. | last3=Bitsch | first3=B. | last4=Mustill | first4=A.J. | last5=Turrini | first5=D. | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=623 | date=March 2019 | pages=A169 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201833713| arxiv=1902.04591 | bibcode=2019A&A...623A.169P | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Pirani_accompanying_article>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190322105706.htm |title=Jupiter's Unknown Journey Revealed |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=Lund University |date=March 22, 2019 |access-date=March 25, 2019 |archive-date=March 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322165523/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190322105706.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to the [[Nice model]], the infall of proto-[[Kuiper belt]] objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]].<ref name="Levison2008">{{cite journal |last1=Levison |first1=Harold F. |last2=Morbidelli |first2=Alessandro |last3=Van Laerhoven |first3=Christa |last4=Gomes |first4=R. |date=2008 |title=Origin of the structure of the Kuiper belt during a dynamical instability in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=196 |issue=1 |pages=258–273 |arxiv=0712.0553 |bibcode=2008Icar..196..258L |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.11.035|s2cid=7035885 }}</ref>

According to the [[Jumping-Jupiter scenario]], Jupiter's migration through the early solar system could have led to the ejection of a [[Fifth Giant|fifth gas giant]]. This hypothesis suggests that during its orbital migration, Jupiter's gravitational influence disrupted the orbits of other gas giants, potentially casting one planet out of the solar system entirely. The dynamics of such an event would have dramatically altered the formation and configuration of the solar system, leaving behind only the four gas giants humans observe today.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Evidence for a Distant Giant Planet in the Solar System |doi=10.3847/0004-6256/151/2/22 |doi-access=free |date=2016 |last1=Batygin |first1=Konstantin |last2=Brown |first2=Michael E. |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=151 |issue=2 |page=22 |arxiv=1601.05438 |bibcode=2016AJ....151...22B }}</ref>

Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the [[molecular nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) snow line, which is estimated at {{Convert|20|-|30|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit}} from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as {{Convert|40|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit}}.<ref name=n2_snowline_2019>{{cite journal | last1=Öberg | first1=K.I. | last2=Wordsworth | first2=R. | title=Jupiter's Composition Suggests its Core Assembled Exterior to the N_{2} Snowline | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2019 | volume=158 | issue=5 | doi=10.3847/1538-3881/ab46a8 | arxiv=1909.11246 | s2cid=202749962 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Öberg | first1=K.I. | last2=Wordsworth | first2=R. | title=Erratum: "Jupiter's Composition Suggests Its Core Assembled Exterior to the N2 Snowline" | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2020| volume=159 | issue=2 | page=78 | doi=10.3847/1538-3881/ab6172 | s2cid=214576608 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location,<ref name="Pirani_et_al_2019"/><ref name="Pirani_accompanying_article"/> during an epoch approximately 2–3&nbsp;million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards.<ref name=Pirani_et_al_2019/>