Editing Justinian I (section)

==Reign==
===Legislative activities===
{{main|Corpus Juris Civilis}}
[[File:Porphyry head of Justinian I (cropped).jpg|thumb|The ''[[Carmagnola (Venice)|Carmagnola]]'', an imperial [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] head in Venice perhaps representing Justinian<ref>{{cite web|author=Yuri Marano|website=Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA Database), University of Oxford|title=Discussion: Porphyry head of emperor ('Justinian'). From Constantinople (now in Venice). Early sixth century.|url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=826|date=2012|access-date=5 April 2020|archive-date=24 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524222921/http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=826|url-status=live}}</ref>
]]

Justinian remains well-known for his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all [[Roman law]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department |first=Reference |title=GW Law Library: Library Guides: Roman Law Research: Corpus Juris Civilis |url=https://law.gwu.libguides.com/romanlaw/corpusjuriscivilis |access-date=20 October 2024 |website=law.gwu.libguides.com |language=en}}</ref> something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the {{Lang|la|[[Corpus juris civilis]]}}. It consists of the ''[[Codex Justinianeus]],'' the ''Digesta'' or ''[[Pandectae]]'', the ''[[Institutes of Justinian|Institutiones]]'', and the ''[[Novellae Constitutiones|Novellae]]''.

Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the ''[[quaestor sacri palatii|quaestor]]'' [[Tribonian]] to oversee this task. The first draft of the ''[[Codex Justinianeus]]'', a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the ''Digesta'' (or ''[[Pandectae]]''), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the ''[[Institutes of Justinian|Institutiones]]'', a textbook explaining the principles of law. The ''[[Novellae Constitutiones|Novellae]]'', a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the ''Corpus''. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the ''Novellae'' appeared in [[Greek language|Greek]], the common language of the Eastern Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=David |title=Roman Law in Context |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0521639611 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=24}}</ref>

The ''Corpus'' forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon Law]]) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the ''leges'' (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, [[Byzantine Senate|senatorial]] consults (''senatusconsulta''), imperial decrees, [[case law]], and jurists' opinions and interpretations (''responsa prudentium'').
Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the ''[[Basilika]]'' of [[Basil I]] and [[Leo VI the Wise]]. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called [[Pragmatic Sanction of Justinian I|Pragmatic Sanction of 554]]),<ref>Kunkel, W. (translated by J. M. Kelly) ''An introduction to Roman legal and constitutional history''. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966; 168</ref> from where it was to pass to [[Western Europe]] in the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the [[Americas]] and beyond in the [[Age of Discovery]]. It eventually passed to [[Eastern Europe]] where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3001333 |title=Russia and the Roman Law |journal=American Slavic and East European Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |author=Darrell P. Hammer |publisher=JSTOR |year=1957 |doi=10.2307/3001333 }}</ref> It remains influential to this day.

His legislations restricted avenues of divorce, including divorce by mutual consent. The latter was overturned by his immediate successor, [[Justin II]].<ref>Sarris, P. (2017). Emperor Justinian. In J. Witte, Jr & G. Hauk (Eds.), Christianity and Family Law: An Introduction (Law and Christianity, pp. 85-99). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108233255.008; [[Novellae Constitutiones]] 140.</ref>

He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being [[forced prostitution|forced into prostitution]]. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice.<ref>Garland (1999), pp.&nbsp;16–17</ref>

Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarris |first=Peter |title=Christianity and Family Law |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-23325-5 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=J. |chapter=Emperor Justinian |doi=10.1017/9781108233255.008 |editor-last2=Hauk |editor-first2=G.}}</ref>

He passed legislations directed against the Christian "heretics", pagans, Jews and Samaritans, forbidding them from holding public office, destroying their places of worship and restricting the ownership of property.<ref>Michael Maas (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian'' (Cambridge 2005), pp. 330-331, p. 517</ref>

Justinian discontinued the regular appointment of [[Roman consul|Consuls]] in 541.<ref>Vasiliev (1952), p. I 192.</ref>

In Constantinople, under Justinian, hospitals were built and free medical care provided to the many poor residents of the city. In addition, public baths were free for all residents and 20 state bakeries provided free bread to those who needed it.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

===Nika riots===
{{Main|Nika riots}}
[[File:Diptych Barberini Louvre OA9063 whole.jpg|thumb|The [[Barberini Ivory]], thought to portray either Justinian or [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius&nbsp;I]]]]

In January 532, partisans of the [[chariot racing]] factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the [[Nika riots]]. They forced him to dismiss [[Tribonian]] and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator [[Hypatius (consul 500)|Hypatius]], who was a nephew of the late emperor [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius]]. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and [[Mundus (general)|Mundus]]. Procopius relates that 30,000<ref name="riot">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 200</ref> unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.{{efn|According to one source, this came at Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment.<ref> Pseudo-Zachariah of Mytilene, ''Syriac Chronicle'' 9.14; Diehl, Charles. ''Theodora, Empress of Byzantium'' ((c) 1972 by Frederick Ungar Publishing, Inc., transl. by S.R. Rosenbaum from the original French ''Theodora, Imperatice de Byzance''), 89.</ref>}}<ref>Vasiliev (1958), p. 157.</ref>

The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to carry out his building program in Constantinople, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed [[Hagia Sophia]].{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=116}}

===Military activities===
[[File:Gurlitt Justinian column.jpg|thumb|upright|Reconstruction of the [[Column of Justinian]], after Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912. The column was erected in the [[Augustaeum]] in Constantinople in 543 in honour of his military victories.]]

Justinian's reign was marked by the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of imperial control in the 5th century.<ref>For an account of Justinian's wars, see Moorhead (1994), pp. 22–24, 63–98, and 101–109.</ref> Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art.<ref>See A. D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian'' (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–33 (pp. 113–114). For Justinian's own views, see the texts of ''Codex Iustinianus'' 1.27.1 and ''Novellae'' 8.10.2 and 30.11.2.</ref> The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius.{{efn|Justinian himself took the field only once, during a campaign against the Huns in 559, when he was already an old man. This enterprise was largely symbolic and although no battle was fought, the emperor held a triumphal entry in the capital afterwards. (See Browning, R. ''Justinian and Theodora.'' London 1971, 193.)}}

====War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532====
{{Main|Iberian War}}
From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the [[Sassanid Empire]].<ref>See Geoffrey Greatrex, "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century" in Michael Maas (ed.). ''Age of Justinian'' (2005), pp. 477–509.</ref> In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at [[Battle of Dara|Dara]] and [[Battle of Satala (530)|Satala]], but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near [[Battle of Callinicum|Callinicum]].<ref name="gold"/> Justinian then tried to make alliance with the [[Axumites]] of Ethiopia and the [[Himyarites]] of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Sidney |title=Events in Arabia in the 6th Century A.D. |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=1954 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=425–468 |jstor=608617 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00086791 |s2cid=163004552 }}</ref> When king [[Kavadh I of Persia]] died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "[[Eternal Peace (532)|Eternal Peace]]" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold)<ref name="gold">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', p. 195.</ref> with his successor [[Khosrau I]] (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former [[Western Roman Empire]].<ref name="Procopius-Dewing">Procopius, ''De Bellus'' III.9.5. Translated by H.B. Dewing, ''Procopius'' (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1979), vol. 2 p. 85</ref>

====Conquest of North Africa, 533–534====
{{Main|Vandalic War}}

The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the [[Vandals]] in [[North Africa]]. King [[Hilderic]], who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin [[Gelimer]] in 530 AD. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded [[Iberian War|his ongoing war]] with the [[Sassanian Empire]] and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533.<ref name="Procopius-Dewing" />

In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 [[dromon]]s, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed at [[Caput Vada|Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia)]] in modern [[Tunisia]]. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at [[Ad Decimum]] on 14 September 533 and [[Battle of Tricamarum|Tricamarum]] in December; Belisarius took [[Carthage]]. King [[Gelimer]] fled to Mount Pappua in [[Numidia]], but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a [[Roman triumph|triumph]]. [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]], the [[Balearic Islands]], and the stronghold [[Ceuta|Septem Fratres]] near [[Mons Calpe]] (later named [[Gibraltar]]) were recovered in the same campaign.<ref>Moorhead (1994), p. 68.</ref>

[[File:Medallion of Justinian I.jpg|thumb|A golden medallion celebrating the reconquest of [[Africa]], AD 534]]

In this war, the contemporary [[Procopius]] remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mavor |first=William Fordyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaCgjEAmUfEC&pg=RA1-PA81 |title=Universal History, Ancient and Modern: From the Earliest Records of Time, to the General Peace of 1801 |date=1802 |publisher=R. Phillips |pages=81 |language=en |access-date=9 August 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407083159/https://books.google.com/books?id=uaCgjEAmUfEC&pg=RA1-PA81 |url-status=live }}</ref> An [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa|African prefecture]], centred in Carthage, was established in April 534,<ref>Moorhead (1994), p. 70.</ref> but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the [[Moors]] and military mutinies. By the mid-540s, under a succession of Byzantine generals, the region was disrupted under civil war, plague and military campaigning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Merrills |first=Andy |date=2021 |title=The Men Who Would Be King: Moorish Political Hierarchies and Imperial Policy in By |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09503110.2020.1833575 |journal=Al-Masāq: Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean  |volume=33 |pages=16 |doi=10.1080/09503110.2020.1833575 |via=Taylor & Francis online|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The area was not completely pacified until 548,<ref>{{cite book | last = Procopius | title = De Bello Vandalico | chapter = II.XXVIII}}</ref> but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.<ref name="tulane.edu">{{cite web | url = http://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Finances.htm | title = Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades | publisher = Tulane | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080309095541/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/H303/handouts/Finances.htm | archive-date = 9 March 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

====War in Italy, first phase, 535–540====
{{Main|Gothic War (535–554)}}
[[File:Empèri Bizantin - Rèine de Justinian.png|thumb|Justinian's conquests]]

As in Africa, dynastic struggles in [[Ostrogothic Italy]] provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king [[Athalaric]] had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, [[Theodahad]], had imprisoned queen [[Amalasuintha]], Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in [[Lake Bolsena]], where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men,<ref name="Norw">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 215</ref> invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking [[Naples]] and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected [[Vitigis]] as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city.{{sfn|Rosen|2007|pp=153–155}}

Justinian sent another general, [[Narses]], to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. [[Milan]] was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius [[Siege of Ravenna (539–540)|reached]] the Ostrogothic capital [[Ravenna]]. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the [[Po River]] in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire.<ref>Moorhead (1994), pp. 84–86.</ref> Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured [[Vitigis]] and his wife [[Matasuntha]] with him.<ref name="AbbottLay1900">{{cite book|author1=John Stevens Cabot Abbott|author2=Wilfred C. Lay|title=Italy|url=https://archive.org/details/italy00laygoog|year=1900|publisher=P. F. Collier|page=[https://archive.org/details/italy00laygoog/page/n424 424]}}</ref>

====War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562====
{{main|Lazic War}}
[[File:Roman-Persian Frontier, 565 AD.png|thumb|alt=Map showing Roman-Persian frontier in 565 AD|Map of the Byzantine–Sasanian frontier in 565. In 541, the small but strategic region of [[Lazica]] on the eastern shore of the Black Sea became the new battlefield of the [[Roman–Persian Wars]].]]

Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]]. Following a revolt against the Empire in [[Marzpanate Period|Armenia]] in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King [[Khosrau I]] broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540.<ref>See for this section Moorhead (1994), pp. 89 ff., Greatrex (2005), p. 488 ff., and especially H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", in ''Chiron'' 36, 2006, pp. 299 ff.</ref> He first sacked [[Aleppo|Beroea]] and then [[Antioch]] (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city),<ref name="gold2">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 229</ref> besieged [[Daras]], and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of [[Lazic War|Lazica]] near the Black Sea as requested by its discontented king [[Gubazes II of Lazica|Gubazes]], exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.<ref name="gold2"/>

Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court.<ref>Procopius mentions this event both in the ''Wars'' and in the ''Secret History'', but gives two entirely different explanations for it. The evidence is briefly discussed in Moorhead (1994), pp. 97–98.</ref> 
The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force at [[Battle of Anglon|Anglon]].<ref name="Nor2">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 235</ref> The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully [[Siege of Edessa (544)|besieged]] the major city of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that, the [[Lazic War]] in the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sent [[Dagisthaeus]] to [[Siege of Petra (549)|recapture Petra]], but he faced heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements. Justinian replaced him with [[Bessas (magister militum)|Bessas]], who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to [[Siege of Petra (550–551)|capture and dismantle Petra]] in 551. The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by a [[Fifty-Year Peace Treaty|fifty years' peace]] in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 ''solidi'') to be paid by the Romans.<ref>Moorhead ((1994), p. 164) gives the lower, Greatrex ((2005), p. 489) the higher figure.</ref>

====War in Italy, second phase, 541–554====
[[File:Spanish Visigothic gold tremisses in the name of emperor Justinian I with cross on breast 7th century.jpg|thumb|[[Visigothic Kingdom|Spanish Visigothic]] gold [[Tremissis]] in the name of emperor Justinian I, 7th century. The [[Christian cross]] on the breast defines the Visigothic attribution. [[British Museum]].]]

While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings [[Ildibad]] and [[Eraric]] (both murdered in 541) and especially [[Totila]], the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a [[Battle of Faventia|victory]] at [[Faenza]] in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian Peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D’Amato |first=Raffaele |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aRWDgAAQBAJ |title=Imperial Roman Warships 193–565 AD |date=23 February 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4728-1827-0 |pages=44 |language=en}}</ref> During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first [[Sack of Rome (546)|taken and depopulated]] by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered [[Sicily]] and attacked Greek coastlines.{{sfn|Bury|1958|pp=233–238}}

Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses.<ref name="Nor3">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 251</ref> The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the [[battle of Busta Gallorum]] in the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]], where Totila was slain. After a second battle at [[Battle of Mons Lactarius|Mons Lactarius]] in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale [[Franks|Frankish]] invasion was defeated at [[Battle of Casilinum|Casilinum]], and Italy was secured for the empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men.<ref name="Nor">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 233</ref> The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold.<ref name="tulane.edu"/> Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g1YBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA82|title=Universal history, ancient and modern|date=1 March 1802|via=Google Books|last1=Mavor|first1=William Fordyce}}</ref>

====Other campaigns====
[[File:4KJUSTINIAN.png|thumb|Emperor Justinian reconquered many former territories of the Western Roman Empire, including [[Roman Italy|Italia]], [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], Africa, and southern [[Hispania]].]]

In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in [[Visigothic]] [[Hispania]], when the usurper [[Athanagild]] requested assistance in his rebellion against King [[Agila I]]. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian [[Jordanes]], this army was led by the octogenarian [[Liberius (praetorian prefect)|Liberius]].<ref>''Getica'', 303</ref> The Byzantines took [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]] and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of [[Spania]] before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

During Justinian's reign, the [[Balkans]] suffered from several incursions by the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[Slavic peoples]] who lived north of the [[Danube]]. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of [[Slavic peoples|Sklavinoi]] and [[Kutrigurs]] under their [[Khan (title)|khan]] [[Zabergan]] threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Evans|first=James Allan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/843198707|title=The Power Game in Byzantium : Antonina and the Empress Theodora.|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-2040-3|location=London|pages=205–206|oclc=843198707}}</ref>

====Results====
Justinian's ambition for re-conquest was only partly realized, with the only lasting and sustainable conquest being [[Byzantine North Africa|Africa]]. In the West, the early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought.<ref>See Lee (2005), pp. 125 ff.</ref> The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply resented.<ref>{{cite book |last=Amory |first=Patrick |author-link=Patrick Amory |year=1997 |title=People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489&ndash;554 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=176 |isbn=0-521-57151-0}}</ref>

The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern [[Hispania]] significantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the [[Lombards]] as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian [[Menander Protector]] felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age.<ref>W. Pohl, "Justinian and the Barbarian Kingdoms", in Maas (2005), pp. 448–476; 472</ref> Some historians view that in his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.<ref>See Haldon (2003), pp. 17–19.</ref>

===Religious activities===
[[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A [[mosaic]] showing [[Justinian]] with [[Maximianus of Ravenna|the bishop]] of [[Ravenna]] (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers<ref name=Adams158>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 158–159</ref>]]

Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially [[miaphysitism]], which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Miaphysitism rejected the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, which ruled that Jesus Christ has two natures (one divine and one human), instead maintaining that he has one nature that is both fully divine and fully human. The tolerant policies towards Miaphysitism of [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] and [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=207–250}}

Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Miaphysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=207–250}}

Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards Miaphysitism, especially in the form of [[Aphthartodocetae|Aphthartodocetism]], but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora, herself a Miaphysite, sympathized with the Miaphysites and was accused of being constant source of pro-Miaphysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises.<ref>Treatises written by Justinian can be found in Migne's ''Patrologia Graeca'', Vol. 86.</ref>

====Religious policy====

[[File:Sergius and Bacchus Church February 2011.JPG|thumb|[[Little Hagia Sophia]] (Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus) was built by Justinian]]

As in his secular administration, [[despotism]] appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. At the very beginning of his reign, he promulgated by law the Church's belief in the [[Trinity]] and the [[Incarnation]], and to threaten all [[Christian heresy|heretics]] with the appropriate penalties,<ref>''Cod.'', I., i. 5.</ref> whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by [[due process]] of law.<ref>''MPG'', lxxxvi. 1, p. 993.</ref> He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church<ref>''Cod.'', I., i. 7.</ref> and accorded legal force to the [[canon law|canons]] of the four [[ecumenical]] councils.<ref>''Novellae'', cxxxi.</ref> The bishops in attendance at the [[Council of Constantinople (536)]] recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command,<ref>Mansi, ''Concilia'', viii. 970B.</ref> while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the [[Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople|Patriarch Anthimus]], reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription.<ref>''Novellae'', xlii.</ref> Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend [[monasticism]]. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive ''solemnia'', or annual gifts, from the [[Imperial treasury, Rome|imperial treasury]] or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Both the ''Codex'' and the ''Novellae'' contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of [[Hagia Sophia]] (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold),<ref name="Hea">P. Heather, ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'', 283</ref> the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and [[mosaic]]s, became the Eastern Roman Empire's space of identification.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religion and politics at the Golden Horn? |url=https://www.uni-muenster.de/Religion-und-Politik/en/aktuelles/schwerpunkte/umnutzungen/Religion_und_Politik_am_Goldenen_Horn.html |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=www.uni-muenster.de |date=22 July 2020 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211065840/https://www.uni-muenster.de/Religion-und-Politik/en/aktuelles/schwerpunkte/umnutzungen/Religion_und_Politik_am_Goldenen_Horn.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Religious relations with Rome====

Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical conflicts shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the [[Acacian schism]]. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the [[Council of Chalcedon]], which had condemned [[miaphysitism]], which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Miaphysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and re-established the union between Constantinople and Rome.<ref>cf. ''Novellae'', cxxxi.</ref> After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favored [[Pope Vigilius|Vigilius]] and had his rival [[Pope Silverius|Silverius]] deported.{{sfn|Bury|1958|pp=378–379}}

[[File:Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|10th-century Hagia Sophia mosaic depicting the Virgin Mary holding the Child Christ on her lap. On her right side stands Justinian, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. On her left, [[Constantine I]] presents a model of Constantinople.]]

This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Miaphysites to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Miaphysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of the [[Three-Chapter Controversy|''Three Chapters'']], three theologians that had opposed Miaphysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]], most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and [[Pope Vigilius]], who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Miaphysites remained unsatisfied – all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.{{sfn|Bury|1958|pp=372–384}}

====Authoritarian rule====
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix=[[Saint]]
|name          = Justinian the Great
|death_date    =
|feast_day     = 14 November
|venerated_in  = * [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
* [[Lutheranism]]
|image         = Angel shows a model of Hagia Sofia to Justinian in a vision.png
|imagesize     =
|caption       = Illustration of an angel showing Justinian a model of Hagia Sophia in a vision, by [[Herbert Cole]] (1912)
|birth_place   =
|death_place   =
|titles        = Emperor
|beatified_date=
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|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
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|attributes    = Imperial Vestment
|patronage     =
|major_shrine  = [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], Constantinople
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Justinian's religious policy reflected the conviction that the unity of the empire presupposed unity of faith under the [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonian Church]].{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} Those of different beliefs were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of [[Constantius II]] and which would now vigorously continue. The ''Codex'' contained two [[statute]]s<ref>''Cod.'', I., xi. 9 and 10.</ref> that decreed the total destruction of [[paganism]], even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, [[Theophanes the Confessor|Theophanes]], and [[John of Ephesus]]) tell of severe persecutions, including men in high positions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sarris |first1=Peter |title=Justinian: emperor, soldier, saint |date=2023 |publisher=Basic Books |location=London |isbn=9781529365399 |page=279}}</ref>

The original [[Platonic Academy|Academy of Plato]] had been [[Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC)|destroyed]] by the Roman dictator [[Sulla]] in 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a [[Neoplatonic Academy]] was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for [[Neoplatonism]] and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued.<ref>Lindberg, David C. "The Beginnings of Western Science", p. 70</ref>

In [[Asia Minor]] alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have [[christianization|converted]] 70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number.<ref>[[François Nau]], in ''Revue de l'orient chretien'', ii., 1897, 482.</ref> Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the [[Heruli]],<ref>Procopius, ''Bellum Gothicum'', ii. 14; [[Evagrius Scholasticus|Evagrius]], ''Hist. eccl.'', iv. 20</ref> the [[Huns]] dwelling near the [[Don River, Russia|Don]],<ref>Procopius, iv. 4; Evagrius, iv. 23.</ref> the [[Abkhaz people|Abasgi]],<ref>Procopius, iv. 3; Evagrius, iv. 22.</ref> and the [[Tzanni]] in [[Caucasus|Caucasia]].<ref>Procopius, ''Bellum Persicum'', i. 15.</ref>

The worship of [[Amun]] at the [[oasis]] of [[Awjila]] in the [[Libya]]n desert was abolished,<ref name="ReferenceA">Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2.</ref> and so were the remnants of the worship of [[Isis]] on the island of [[Philae]], at the first [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataract]] of the [[Nile]].<ref>Procopius, ''Bellum Persicum'', i. 19.</ref> The [[Presbyter Julian]]<ref>''DCB'', iii. 482</ref> and the [[Longinus (missionary)|Bishop Longinus]]<ref>John of Ephesus, ''Hist. eccl.'', iv. 5 sqq.</ref> conducted a mission among the [[Nabataean]]s, and Justinian attempted to strengthen [[Christianity]] in [[Yemen]] by dispatching a bishop from [[Egypt]].<ref>Procopius, ''Bellum Persicum'', i. 20; Malalas, ed. [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr|Niebuhr]], [[Bonn]], 1831, pp. 433 sqq.</ref>

The civil rights of Jews were restricted<ref>''Cod.'', I., v. 12</ref> and their religious privileges threatened.<ref>Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28;</ref> Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue<ref>''Nov.'', cxlvi., 8 February 553</ref> and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek [[Septuagint]] in their synagogues in Constantinople.<ref name="Maas2005">{{Citation|author=Michael Maas|title=The Cambridge companion to the Age of Justinian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AvjaThtrKYC&pg=PA16|access-date=18 August 2010|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-81746-2|pages=16–}}</ref>

The Emperor faced significant opposition from the [[Samaritan]]s, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were [[Samaritan revolts|repeatedly in insurrection]]. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, for example, in 529, he banned them from having wills, an intentional act of humiliation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sarris |first1=Peter |title=Justinian: emperor, soldier, saint |date=2023 |publisher=Basic Books |location=London |isbn=9781529365399 |page=283}}</ref> However, he could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. 

The [[Manicheans]] too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment.<ref>''Cod.'', I., v. 12.</ref> In Constantinople, c.450, a number of Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed by burning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sarris |first1=Peter |title=Justinian: emperor, soldier, saint |date=2023 |publisher=Basic Books |location=London |isbn=9781529365399 |page=279}}</ref>

===Architecture, learning, art and literature===
[[File:Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus 02.JPG|thumb|Consular [[diptych]] displaying Justinian's full name (Constantinople 521)]]

Justinian's reputation as a prolific builder is attested in the works of Procopius, [[Paul the Silentiary]], John Malalas and [[Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor]].<ref>See Procopius, ''Buildings''.</ref> Under Justinian's reign, the [[Basilica of San Vitale|San Vitale]] in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius.<ref name=dotma>Robert Browning. "Justinian I" in ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', volume VII (1986).</ref> Most notably, he had the [[Hagia Sophia]], originally a [[basilica]]-style church that had been burnt down during the [[Nika riots]], splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of [[Isidore of Miletus]] and [[Anthemius of Tralles]]. On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice: "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made by [[Isidore the Younger]]. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barker|first=John W.|title=Justinian and the Later Roman Empire|date=1966|page=183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&pg=PA183|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=9780299039448|access-date=9 August 2023|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307051544/https://books.google.com/books?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&pg=PA183|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Hagia Sophia (228968325).jpeg|thumb|upright=1.25|The current structure of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Istanbul]]. Construction began by order of Justinian in AD 532—537]]

Another prominent church in the capital, the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt.<ref>Vasiliev (1952), p. 189</ref> The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed [[Little Hagia Sophia]], was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bardill|first=Jonathan|date=2017|title=The Date, Dedication, and Design of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople|journal=Journal of Late Antiquity|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=62–130|doi=10.1353/jla.2017.0003|issn=1942-1273|doi-access=free}}</ref> Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]] have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a [[Column of Justinian|column topped by a bronze statue]] of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the [[Augustaeum]] in Constantinople in 543.<ref>Brian Croke, "Justinian's Constantinople", in Michael Maas (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian'' (Cambridge 2005), pp. 60–86 (p. 66)</ref> Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige.<ref>See Croke (2005), pp. 364 ff., and Moorhead (1994).</ref>

Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground [[cisterns]] (see [[Basilica Cistern]]). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]], [[Dara Dam|an advanced arch dam]] was built. During his reign the large [[Sangarius Bridge]] was built in [[Bithynia]], securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called [[Justiniana Prima]], which was intended to replace [[Thessalonica]] as the political and religious centre of [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]].{{sfn|Turlej|2016|pp=47–86}}

In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and [[Agathias]], and poets such as [[Paul the Silentiary]] and [[Romanus the Singer|Romanus the Melodist]] flourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famous [[Law School of Berytus]]<ref>Following a terrible earthquake in 551, the school at Berytus was transferred to Sidon and had no further significance after that date. (Vasiliev (1952), p. 147)</ref> lost their importance during his reign.{{sfn|Bury|1958|p=369}}

===Economy and administration===
{{further|Byzantine silk}}
[[File:Gold coin of Justinian I 527CE 565CE excavated in India probably in the south.jpg|thumb|Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565) excavated in [[India]] probably in the south, an example of [[Indo-Roman trade]] during the period]]

As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the empire was an agrarian-based economy. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as [[Cornwall]] where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat.<ref>John F. Haldon, "Economy and Administration", in Michael Maas (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian'' (Cambridge 2005), pp. 28–59 (p. 35)</ref> Within the empire, convoys sailing from [[Alexandria]] provided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of [[Ancient Tenedos|Tenedos]] for storage and further transport to Constantinople.<ref>John Moorhead, ''Justinian'' (London/New York 1994), p. 57</ref> Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians.

Silk was an important luxury product, which was imported and then processed in the empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541.<ref>Peter Brown, ''The World of Late Antiquity'' (London 1971), pp. 157–158</ref> In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the [[Kingdom of Axum|Abyssinians]], whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India.<ref>Vasiliev (1952), p. 167</ref> Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in [[Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire|smuggling eggs of silk worms]] from [[Central Asia]] back to Constantinople,<ref>See Moorhead (1994), p. 167; Procopius, ''Wars'', 8.17.1–8</ref> and silk became an indigenous product.

[[File:Byzantinischer Mosaizist des 5. Jahrhunderts 002.jpg|thumb|Scene from daily life on a mosaic from the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]], early 6th century]]

Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/3707/justinian-gold.roman-mines.egypt-gold/justinian%E2%80%99s.gold.mines.aspx |title=Justinian's Gold Mines – Mining Technology &#124; TechnoMine |publisher=Technology.infomine.com |date=3 December 2008 |access-date=14 November 2012 |archive-date=2 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302061813/http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/3707/justinian-gold.roman-mines.egypt-gold/justinian%E2%80%99s.gold.mines.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> At the start of Justinian I's reign, he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 ''solidi'' (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and [[Justin I]].<ref name="tulane.edu"/> Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the [[prefectures]] and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the [[vicarius|vicariates]] of the [[dioceses]], of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure.<ref>Haldon (2005), p. 50</ref> According to [[Peter Brown (historian)|Brown]] (1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns.<ref>Brown (1971), p. 157</ref> It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 ''solidi'' in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 ''solidi'' in AD 550.<ref name="tulane.edu"/>

Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East thrived, although [[Antioch]] was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]] (540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale.<ref>Kenneth G. Holum, "The Classical City in the Sixth Century", in Michael Maas (ed.), ''Age of Justinian'' (2005), pp. 99–100</ref>

The empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decreasing the empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages.<ref>Moorhead (1994), pp. 100–101</ref> It has been proposed that the lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s,<ref>John L. Teall, "The Barbarians in Justinian's Armies", in ''Speculum'', vol. 40, No. 2, 1965, 294–322. The total strength of the Byzantine army under Justinian is estimated at 150,000 men (J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 259).</ref> but others are skeptical of this view.<ref>A.D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian'' (2005), p. 118</ref> The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance.<ref>Brown (1971), p. 158; Moorhead (1994), p. 101</ref>