Editing Lao language (section)

==History==
{{Further|Tai languages|Tai peoples}}

=== Tai migration (8th–12th century) ===
[[File:Tai Migration.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Map showing the general migration patterns and diversification of the Tai peoples and languages from the original Tai ''[[Urheimat]]'' of southeastern China]]
The ancestors of the Lao people were speakers of Southwestern Tai dialects that migrated from what is now southeastern China, specifically what is now [[Guangxi]] and northern [[Vietnam]] where the diversity of various Tai languages suggests an ''[[linguistic homeland|Urheimat]]''. The Southwestern Tai languages began to diverge from the Northern and Central branches of the Tai languages, covered mainly by various [[Zhuang languages]], sometime around 112 CE, but likely completed by the [[sixth century]].<ref name="migration">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00033.x |title=The Languages of Vietnam: Mosaics and Expansions |year=2007 |last1=Edmondson |first1=Jerold A. |last2=Gregerson |first2=Kenneth J. |journal=Language and Linguistics Compass |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=727–749 }}</ref> Due to the influx of [[Han Chinese]] soldiers and settlers, the end of the [[Third Chinese domination of Vietnam|Chinese occupation]] of Vietnam, the fall of [[Jiaozhi]] and turbulence associated with the decline and fall of the [[Tang dynasty]] led some of the Tai peoples speaking Southwestern Tai to flee into Southeast Asia, with the small-scale migration mainly taking place between the [[eighth century|eighth]] and [[twelfth century|twelfth]] centuries. The Tais split and followed the major river courses, with the ancestral Lao originating in the Tai migrants that followed the [[Mekong River]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pittayaporn |first1=Pittayawat |title=Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Protosouthwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai |journal=Manusya: Journal of Humanities |date=1 January 2014 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=47–68 |doi=10.1163/26659077-01703004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Divergence and convergence===
As the Southwestern Tai-speaking peoples diverged, following paths down waterways, their dialects began to diverge into the various languages today, such as the Lao-Phuthai languages that developed along the Mekong River and includes Lao and its Isan sub-variety and the Chiang Saen languages which includes the Central Thai dialect that is the basis of Standard Thai. Despite their close relationship, there were several phonological divergences that drifted the languages apart with time such as the following examples:<ref name="Pittay">{{cite journal |last1=Pittayaporn |first1=Pittayawat |title=Proto-Southwestern-Tai revised: A new reconstruction |journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society |volume=2 |issue= |date=2009 |pages=119–143 |url=http://jseals.org/JSEALS-2.pdf#page=125 |hdl=1885/113003 }}</ref><ref name="PWST1">{{cite journal |last1=Greenhill |first1=Simon J. |last2=Blust |first2=Robert |last3=Gray |first3=Russell D. |title=The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics |journal=Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online |date=3 November 2008 |volume=4 |pages=271–283 |id={{ProQuest|1038141425}} |doi=10.4137/ebo.s893 |pmid=19204825 |pmc=2614200 }}</ref><ref name="PWST2">Jonsson, Nanna L. (1991) Proto Southwestern Tai. Ph.D dissertation, available from UMI.</ref>

; PSWT *''ml'' > Lao /m/, > Thai /l/
{{fs interlinear|indent=3
| {} {} {{lang|lo|ມື່ນ}} {} {{lang|th|ลื่น}}
| {} {} muen {} luen
| *mlɯn <math>\rightarrow</math> /mɯ̄ːn/ <math>\rightarrow</math> /lɯ̂ːn/
| 'slippery' {} {} {} {}
|}}
; PSWT *''r'' (initial) > Lao /h/, > Thai /r/
{{fs interlinear|indent=3
| {} {} {{lang|lo|ຮາກ}} {} {{lang|th|ราก}}
| {} {} hak {} rak
| *raːk <math>\rightarrow</math> /hâːk/ <math>\rightarrow</math> /râːk/
| {'to vomit'} {} {} {} {}
|}}
; PSWT *''ɲ'' > Lao /ɲ/, > Thai /j/
{{fs interlinear|indent=3
| {} {} {{lang|lo|ຍູງ}} {} {{lang|th|ยุง}}
| {} {} nyung {} yung
| *ɲuŋ <math>\rightarrow</math> /ɲúːŋ/ <math>\rightarrow</math> /jūŋ/
| 'mosquito' {} {} {} {}
|}}

Similar influences and proximity allowed for both languages to converge in many aspects as well. Thai and Lao, although separated, passively influenced each other through centuries of proximity. For instance, the Proto-Southwestern Tai *''mlɛːŋ'' has produced the expected Lao /m/ outcome ''maeng'' ({{lang|lo|ແມງ}} ''mèng'', {{IPA|/mɛ́ːŋ/}}) and the expected Thai /l/ outcome ''laeng'' ({{lang|th|แลง}} {{IPA|/lɛ̄ːŋ/}}), although this is only used in Royal Thai or restricted academic usage, with the common form ''malaeng'' ({{lang|th|แมลง}} {{IPA|/máʔ.lɛ̄ːŋ/}}), actually an archaic variant. In slang and relaxed speech, Thai also has ''maeng'' ({{lang|th|แมง}} {{IPA|/mɛ̄ːŋ/}}), likely due to influence of Lao.<ref name="Pittay"/>

Thai and Lao also share similar sources of loan words. Aside from many of the deeply embedded Sinitic loan words adopted at various points in the evolution of Southwestern Tai at the periphery of Chinese influence, the Tais in Southeast Asia encountered the Khmer. Khmer loan words dominate all areas and registers of both languages and many are shared between them. Khmer loan words include body parts, urban living, tools, administration and local plants. The Thai, and likely the Lao, were able to make Khmer-style coinages that were later exported back to Khmer.<ref name="Huffy">{{cite journal |last1=Huffman |first1=Franklin E. |title=Thai and Cambodian – A Case of Syntactic Borrowing? |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1973 |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=488–509 |doi=10.2307/600168 |jstor=600168 }}</ref> The heavy imprint of Khmer is shown in the genetics of Tai speakers, with samples from Thai and Isan people of Lao descent showing proof of both the Tai migration but also intermarriage and assimilation of local populations. Scholars such as Khanittanan propose that the deep genetic and linguistic impact of the autochthonous Khmer and their language indicates that the earliest days of [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] had a largely bilingual population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khanittanan |first1=W. |year=2001 |title=Khmero-Thai: The great change in the history of Thai |journal=ภาษาและภาษาศาสตร์ |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=35–50 }}</ref> Although evidence and research in Lao is lacking, major Lao cities were known to have been built atop existing Khmer settlements, suggesting assimilation of the locals. Isan and Lao commonly use a Khmer loan not found in Thai, ''khanong'' ({{lang|lo|ຂະໜົງ/ຂນົງ}} ''khanông'', {{IPA|/kʰáʔ.nŏŋ/}}), 'doorframe', from Khmer ''khnâng'' ({{lang|km|ខ្នង}}, {{IPA|/knɑːŋ/}}), which means 'building', 'foundation' or 'dorsal ridge'.<ref name="Huffy"/><ref>Gunn, G. C. (2004). 'Laotinization' in ''Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor''. Ooi, K. G. (ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc.</ref>

Indic languages also pushed Thai and Lao closer together, particularly Sanskrit and Pali loan words that they share. Many Sanskrit words were adopted via the Khmer language, particularly concerning Indian concepts of astrology, astronomy, ritual, science, kingship, art, music, dance and mythology. New words were historically coined from Sanskrit roots just as European languages, including English, share Greek and Latin roots used for these purposes, such as 'telephone' from Greek roots {{lang|el|τῆλε}} ''tēle'', 'distant' and {{lang|el|φωνή}} ''phōnē'' which was introduced in Thai as ''thorasap'' ({{lang|th|โทรศัพท์}}, {{IPA|/tʰōː.ráʔ.sàp/}}) and spread to Isan as ''thorasap'' ({{lang|lo|ໂທຣະສັບ/ໂທລະສັບ}} ''thôrasap'', {{IPA|/tʰóː.làʔ.sáp/}}) from Sanskrit ''dura'' ({{lang|sa|दूर}}, {{IPA|/d̪ura/}}), 'distant', and ''śabda'' ({{lang|sa|शब्द}}, {{IPA|/ʃabd̪a/}}), 'sound'. Indic influences also came via [[Pali]], the [[liturgical language]] of [[Theravada Buddhism]].

The effects of Khmer and Indic vocabulary did not affect all the Tai languages of Southeast Asia equally. The [[Tai Dam people|Tai Dam]] of northern Vietnam were shielded from the influence of the Khmer language and the Indic cultural influences that came with them and remain traditionally a non-Buddhist people. Although the Tai Dam language is a Chiang Saen language, albeit with a lexicon and phonology closer to Lao, the lack of Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali loan words makes the language unintelligible to Thai and Lao speakers.<ref name="Diller">Diller, A. V. N., Edmondson, J. A. & Luo, Y. (2004) ''Tai-Kadai languages.'' (pp. 49–56). New York, NYC: Routledge.</ref>

=== Lan Xang (1354–1707) ===
[[File:Pha_Tat_Phanom_Nakhon_Phanom.JPG|thumb|right|[[Wat Phra That Phanom]] in Nakhon Phanom. Built in the 16th century over earlier Khmer ruins when Isan was part of Lan Xang, the temple is an important place of pilgrimage, attracting Lao from Laos as well as Isan to its temple festivals.]]
Taking advantage of rapid decline in the Khmer Empire, Phra Chao [[Fa Ngum|Fa Ngoum]] ({{lang|lo|ຟ້າງູ່ມ}} {{IPA|/fâː ŋūːm/}}) defeated the Khmer and united the Tai ''mueang'' of what is now Laos and Isan into the [[mandala (Southeast Asian political model)|mandala kingdom]] of [[Lan Xang]] in 1354. Fa Ngoum was a grandson of the ruler of [[Muang Sua|Muang Xoua]] (RTGS ''Mueang Sawa''), modern-day Louang Phrabang. Lan Xang was powerful enough to thwart Siamese designs from their base at [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] and later [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]].<ref>Stuart-Fox, M. (1998). ''The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline''. (pp. 40–60). Banglamung, Thailand: White Lotus Press.</ref>

Khmer, and Sanskrit via Khmer, continued to influence the Lao language. Since Fa Ngoum was raised in the Khmer court, married to a Khmer princess and had numerous Khmer officials in his court, a now-extinct speech register known as ''rasa sap'' ({{lang|lo|ຣາຊາສັບ}} {{IPA|/láː.sáː sáp/}}) was developed to address or discuss the king and high-ranking clergy. Khmer and Sanskrit also contributed many belles-lettres as well as numerous technical, academic and cultural vocabulary, thus differentiating the Lao language from the tribal Tai peoples, but pushing the language closer to Thai, which underwent a similar process. The end of the Lao monarchy in 1975 made the Lao ''raxasap'' obsolete, but as Thailand retains its monarchy, Thai ''[[rachasap]]'' is still active.<ref name="Diller"/>

The 16th century would see the establishment of many of the hallmarks of the contemporary Lao language. Scribes abandoned the use of written Khmer or Lao written in the Khmer alphabet, adopting a simplified, cursive form of the script known as ''[[Tai Noi script|Tai Noi]]'' that with a few modifications survives as the [[Lao script]].<ref name="Toad">Phra Ariyuwat. (1996). ''Phya Khankhaak, the Toad King: A Translation of an Isan Fertility Myth in Verse.'' Wajuppa Tossa (translator). (pp. 27–34). Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.</ref> Lao literature was also given a major boost with the brief union of Lan Xang with Lan Na during the reign of [[Setthathirath|Xay Xétthathirat]] ({{lang|lo|ໄຊເສດຖາທິຣາດ}} {{IPA|/sáj sȅːt.tʰăː.tʰīʔ.lȃːt/}}) (1546–1551). The libraries of [[Chiang Mai]] were copied, introducing the ''[[Tai Tham script|tua tham]]'' (BGN/PCGN ''toua tham'', RTGS ''tua tham'') or 'dharma letters' which was essentially the [[Mon script|Mon]]-influenced script of Lan Na but was used in Lao specifically for religious literature.<ref name="Toad"/> The influence of the related Tai Lan Na language was strengthened after the capitulation of Lan Na to the Burmese, leading many courtiers and people to flee to safety to Lan Xang.

==== Theravada Buddhism ====
Lan Xang was religiously diverse, with most of the people practicing [[Tai folk religion]] albeit somewhat influenced by local Austroasiatic [[animism]], as well as the [[historical Vedic religion|Brahmanism]] and [[Mahayana Buddhism]] introduced via the Khmer and Theravada Buddhism which had been adopted and spread by the [[Mon people]]. Although Lao belief is that the era of Lan Xang began the period of Theravada Buddhism for the Lao people, it was not until the mid-[[sixteenth century]] that the religion had become the dominant religion.<ref>Holt, J. C. (2009). ''Spirits of the Place: Buddhism and Lao Religious Culture''. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press. p. 14.</ref>

With Theravada Buddhism came its liturgical language, Pali, an Indic language derived from the [[Prakrit]]. Many Pali terms existed alongside earlier Sanskrit borrowings or were Sanskritized, leading to doublets such as Sanskrit ''maitri'' ({{lang|lo|ໄມຕີ/ໄມຕຣີ}} {{IPA|/máj.tìː/}}) and Pali ''metta'' ({{lang|lo|ເມດຕາ/ເມຕຕາ}} {{IPA|/mȇːt.tàː/}}), both of which signify 'loving kindness' although the Sanskrit term is more generally used for 'friendship'. The spread of Theravada Buddhism spread literacy, as monks served as teachers, teaching reading and writing as well other basic skills to village boys, and the [[Tai Noi script]] was used for personal letters, record-keeping, and signage, as well as to record short stories and the ''[[klon (poetry)|klon]]'' ({{lang|lo|ກອນ}} {{IPA|/kɔ̀ːn/}}) poetry that were often incorporated into traditional folksongs.<ref name="Toad"/>
{| class="wikitable" 
|+ Shared Pali loan words from Theravada Buddhism
! Pali
! Isan
! Thai
! Lao
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|pi|पुञ्ञ}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|puñña}}<br>{{IPA|/puɲɲa/}}
| {{lang|tts|บุญ}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|bun}}<br>{{IPA|[būn]}}
| {{lang|th|บุญ}}<br>{{transliteration|th|bun}}<br>{{IPA|[būn]}}
| {{lang|lo|ບຸນ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|bun}}<br>{{IPA|[bùn]}}
| 'merit'<br>'virtue'
|-
| {{lang|pi|दुक्ख}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|dukkha}}<br>{{IPA|/d̪ukkʰa/}}
| {{lang|tts|ทุกข์}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|thuk}}<br>{{IPA|[tʰùk]}}
| {{lang|th|ทุกข์}}<br>{{transliteration|th|thuk}}<br>{{IPA|[tʰúk]}}
| {{lang|lo|ທຸກ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|thuk}}<br>{{IPA|[tʰūk]}}
| 'suffering'<br>'misery'
|-
| {{lang|pi|पापकम्म}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|pāpakamma}}<br>{{IPA|/paːpakamma/}}
| {{lang|tts|บาปกรรม}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|bap kam}}<br>{{IPA|[bàːp kām]}}
| {{lang|th|บาปกรรม}}<br>{{transliteration|th|bap kam}}<br>{{IPA|[bàːp kām]}}
| {{lang|lo|ບາບກຳ/ບາບກັມ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|bap kam}}<br>{{IPA|[bȁːp kàm]}}
| 'sin'<br>'transgression'
|-
| {{lang|pi|अनुमोदना}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|anumōdanā}}<br>{{IPA|/ʔanumoːd̪anaː/}}
| {{lang|tts|อนุโมทนา}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|anumo thana}}<br>{{IPA|[ʔā.nù(ʔ).môː tʰā.nâː]}}
| {{lang|th|อนุโมทนา}}<br>{{transliteration|th|anumo thana}}<br>{{IPA|[ʔā.nú(ʔ).mōː tʰā.nāː]}}
| {{lang|lo|ອະນຸໂມທະນາ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|anoumo thana}}<br>{{IPA|[ʔā.nū(ʔ).móː tʰā.náː]}}
| 'to share rejoicing'
|-
| {{lang|pi|सुख}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|sukha}}<br>{{IPA|/sukʰa/}}
| {{lang|tts|สุข}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|suk}}<br>{{IPA|[sȕk]}}
| {{lang|th|สุข}}<br>{{transliteration|th|suk}}<br>{{IPA|[sùk]}}
| {{lang|lo|ສຸກ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|suk}}<br>{{IPA|[súk]}}
| 'health'<br>'happiness'
|-
| {{lang|pi|विज्जा}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|vijja}}<br>{{IPA|/ʋiɟdʒaː/}}
| {{lang|tts|วิชชา}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|witcha}}<br>{{IPA|[wìt.sâː]<br>[wì(ʔ).sâː]}}
| {{lang|th|วิชชา}}<br>{{transliteration|th|witcha}}<br>{{IPA|[wít.tɕʰāː]}}
| {{lang|lo|ວິຊາ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|wisa}}<br>{{IPA|[wī(ʔ).sáː]}}
| 'knowledge'<br>'wisdom'
|-
| {{lang|pi|च‍क्कयुग}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|cakkayuga}}<br>{{IPA|/tʃakkajuga/}}
| {{lang|tts|จักรยาน}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|chakkrayan}}<br>{{IPA|[tɕǎk.kā.ɲâːn]}}
| {{lang|th|จักรยาน}}<br>{{transliteration|th|chakkrayan}}<br>{{IPA|[tɕàk.krā.jāːn]}}
| {{lang|lo|ຈັກກະຍານ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|chakkanyan}}<br>{{IPA|[tɕák.kā.ɲáːn]}}
| 'bicycle'
|-
| {{lang|pi|धम्म}}<br>{{transliteration|pi|ḍhamma}}<br>{{IPA|/ɖʱamma/}}
| {{lang|tts|ธรรม}}<br>{{transliteration|tts|tham}}<br>{{IPA|[tʰâm]}}
| {{lang|th|ธรรม}}<br>{{transliteration|th|tham}}<br>{{IPA|[tʰām]}}
| {{lang|lo|ທຳ/ທັມ}}<br>{{transliteration|lo|tham}}<br>{{IPA|[tʰám]}}
| 'dharma'<br>'morals'
|}

=== Lao Three Kingdoms period (1713–1893) ===
[[File:Wat Photaram mural detail - Vedsuvan has brought Koumphan back to life, but Koumphan still yearns for Soumountha.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Temple mural of [[Wat Photharam, Maha Sarakham|Wat Photaram]] in [[Maha Sarakham Province]]. Dating to the reign of Siamese Ruler Rama III (1788–1851), the writing is in the Tai Noi script, an old form of the Lao alphabet.]]

Despite the long presence of Lan Xang and Lao settlements along the riverbanks, the [[Khorat Plateau]] remained depopulated since the [[Post-Angkor Period]] and a long series of droughts during the 13th–15th centuries. The Lao settlements were found only along the banks of the Mekong River and in the wetter northern areas such as [[Nong Bua Lamphu Province|Nong Bua Lamphu]], [[Loei Province|Loei]], [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]], with most of the population inhabiting the wetter left banks. This began to change when the golden age of Lao prosperity and cultural achievements under King [[Sourigna Vongsa|Sourignavôngsa]] ({{lang|lo|ສຸຣິຍະວົງສາ}} {{IPA|/súʔ.līʔ.ɲāʔ wóŋ.sǎː/}}) (1637–1694) ended with a successional dispute, with his grandsons, with Siamese intervention, carving out their separate kingdoms in 1707. From its ashes arose the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Luang Phrabang|Louang Phrabang]], [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]] and later in 1713, the [[Kingdom of Champasak|Champasak]]. The arid hinterlands, deforested and depopulated after a series of droughts, likely led to the collapse of the Khmer Empire, was only occupied by small groups of Austroasiatic peoples and scattered outposts of Lao ''mueang'' in the far north. In 1718, Mueang Suwannaphum ({{lang|lo|ສຸວັນນະພູມ}} ''Muang Souvannaphoum'', {{IPA|/súʔ.wán.nāʔ.pʰúːm/}}) in 1718 in what is now [[Roi Et Province]], was founded as an outpost of Champasak, establishing the first major Lao presence and the beginning of the expansion of Lao settlement along the [[Chi River|Si]] ({{lang|lo|ຊີ}} {{IPA|/síː/}}) and [[Mun River|Mun]] ({{lang|lo|ມູນ}}) rivers.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The bulk of the Lao, however, settled after 1778 when King [[Taksin]], Siamese king during the [[Thonburi Kingdom|Thonburi Period]] (1767–1782) conquered Champasak and Vientiane and raided [[Muang Phuan|Phuan areas]] for slaves, seizing the [[Emerald Buddha]] and [[Phra Bang]] (although the latter was eventually returned) and forcing some of the Lao across the river to settle in Isan. Louang Phrabang was spared most of the destruction by submitting to Siamese overlordship.<ref>Burusphat, S., Deepadung, S., & Suraratdecha, S. ''et al''. (2011). [https://www.laostudies.org/system/files/subscription/JLS-v2-i2-Nov2011-somsonge.pdf "Language vitality and the ethnic tourism development of the Lao ethnic groups in the western region of Thailand"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222318/https://www.laostudies.org/system/files/subscription/JLS-v2-i2-Nov2011-somsonge.pdf |date=2013-12-02 }}. ''Journal of Lao Studies'', 2(2), 23–46.</ref> Although the kingdoms remained nominally autonomous, the Siamese demanded tribute and taxes, kept members of the respective royal houses as hostages to ensure loyalty and required the three Lao kings to come to the capital several times a year to hold an audience with the Siamese king. When the kingdoms revolted, the Siamese armies retaliated by rounding up entire villages, tattooing them to mark them as slaves and forced to settle what is now Isan, forced to serve as soldiers or manpower in [[corvée]] projects to build roads, to grow food, build canals, or serve as domestics. The greatest population transfer occurred after the [[Laotian Rebellion]] by Chao [[Anouvong|Anouvông]] ({{lang|lo|ອານຸວົງ/ອານຸວົງສ໌}}, {{IPA|/ʔàː.nùʔ.wóŋ/}}) in 1828 which led to the death of Anouvông and most of his family. The Siamese abducted nearly the entire population of Vientiane and its surrounding area and forced them to the right bank. Continued raids of people continued until the end of the nineteenth century.<ref>Stuart-Fox, M. (1997). ''A History of Laos''. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. (pp. 1–20).</ref>

In addition to forced transfers, many Lao were encouraged to settle in Isan, with some disillusioned princes granted lofty titles in exchange for loyalty and taxation, robbing the Lao kings of taxation and wealth as well as what little nominal authority they had left. This greatly expanded the Lao population of Isan and caused assimilation of the local peoples into the mix, a process that is occurring on a smaller scale even now. Siamese intervention paradoxically strengthened the Lao character of the region as the Siamese left the Lao areas alone as long as they continued to produce rice and continued to pay tribute. Direct Siamese rule did not extend past [[Nakhon Ratchasima]], and the Lao ''mueang'', whether paying their tribute directly to Bangkok or the remaining Lao kings and princes, were still nominally part of the separate kingdoms. Temples built in what is now Isan still featured the Tai Noi script on its murals and although Siam would intervene in some matters, daily administration was still left to the remaining kings and various Lao princes that served as governors of the larger ''mueang''. The result of the population movements re-centered the Lao world to the right bank, as today, if Isan and Lao speakers are counted together, Isan speakers form 80 percent of the Lao-speaking population.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

===French Laos (1893–1953)===
{{Main|French protectorate of Laos}}
During French rule, missing words for new technologies and political realities were borrowed from French or Vietnamese, repurposed from old Lao vocabulary as well as coined from Sanskrit. These Sanskrit-derived neologisms were generally the same, although not always, as those that developed in Thai.<ref name="Vacha">Keyes, Charles (2013), Finding Their Voice: Northeastern Villagers and the Thai State, Silkworm Books.</ref><ref name="Platt">Platt, M. B. (2013). ''Isan Writers, Thai Literature Writing and Regionalism in Modern Thailand.'' (pp. 145–149). Singapore: NUS Press.</ref>

Whilst previously written in a mixture of etymological and phonetical spellings, depending on audience or author, Lao underwent several reforms that moved the language towards a purely phonetical spelling. During the restoration of the king of Louang Phabang as King of Laos under the last years of French rule in Laos, the government standardized the spelling of the Lao language, with movement towards a phonetical spelling with preservation of a semi-etymological spelling for Pali, Sanskrit and French loan words and the addition of archaic letters for words of Pali and Sanskrit origin concerning Indic culture and Buddhism.

===Independence and Communist rule (1953–present)===
{{Main|History of Laos since 1945}}
Spelling reforms under the communist rule of Laos in 1975 were more radical, with the complete abolition of semi-etymological spelling in favor of phonetical spelling, with the removal of silent letters, removal of special letters for Indic loan words, all vowels being written out explicitly and even the elimination or replacement of the letter '<big>ຣ</big>' {{IPA|/r/}} (but usually pronounced /l/) in official publications, although older people and many in the Lao diaspora continue to use some of the older spelling conventions.<ref>Ivarson, S. (2008). ''Creating Laos: The Making of a Lao Space Between Indochina and Siam, 1860–1945.'' (pp. 127–135, 190–197) Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies.</ref>