Editing Late antiquity (section)

==Period history==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2024}}
The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational changes starting with the reign of [[Diocletian]], who began the custom of splitting the Empire into [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern]] and Western portions ruled by [[Tetrarchy|multiple emperors simultaneously]]. The Sasanian Empire supplanted the [[Parthian Empire]] and began a new phase of the Roman–Persian Wars, the [[Roman–Sasanian wars|Roman–Sasanian Wars]]. The divisions between the [[Greek East and Latin West]] became more pronounced. The [[Diocletianic Persecution]] of Christians in the early 4th century was [[Edict of Serdica|ended]] by [[Galerius]] and under [[Constantine the Great]], [[Christianity]] was [[Edict of Milan|made legal]] in the Empire. The 4th century [[Christianization of the Roman Empire]] was extended by the conversions of [[Tiridates the Great]] of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], [[Mirian III]] of [[Christianization of Iberia|Iberia]], and [[Ezana of Axum]], who later invaded and ended the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. During the late 4th century reign of [[Theodosius I]], [[Nicene Christianity]] was [[Edict of Thessalonica|proclaimed]] the [[state church of the Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Christianity in the Roman Empire (article) |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/christianity/a/roman-culture |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=Khan Academy |language=en |archive-date=2024-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429175149/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/christianity/a/roman-culture |url-status=live }}</ref>

The city of [[Constantinople]] became the permanent imperial residence in the East by the 5th century and superseded Rome as the largest city in the [[Late Roman Empire]] and the [[Mediterranean basin]]. The longest [[Roman aqueduct]] system, the {{convert|250|km|abbr=on}}-long [[Aqueduct of Valens]] was constructed to supply it with water, and the tallest Roman [[Victory column|triumphal columns]] were erected there.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

[[Migration Period|Migrations]] of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Huns|Hunnic]], and [[Slavs#Migrations|Slavic]] tribes disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards, culminating first in the [[Sack of Rome (410)|Sack of Rome]] by the [[Visigoths]] in 410 and subsequent [[Sack of Rome (455)|Sack of Rome]] by the [[Vandals]] in 455, part of the eventual [[fall of the Western Roman Empire|collapse of the Empire in the West]] itself by 476. The Western Empire was replaced by the so-called [[barbarian kingdoms]], with the [[Arianism|Arian Christian]] [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] ruling Rome from [[Ravenna]]. The resultant cultural fusion of [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]], Germanic, and Christian traditions formed the foundations of the subsequent [[culture of Europe]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

In the 6th century, Roman imperial rule continued in the East, and the [[Roman–Persian Wars#Byzantine–Sasanian wars|Byzantine-Sasanian wars]] continued. The campaigns of [[Justinian the Great]] led to the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal Kingdoms, and their reincorporation into the Empire, when the city of Rome and much of Italy and [[Exarchate of Africa|North Africa]] returned to imperial control. Though most of Italy was soon part of the [[Kingdom of the Lombards]], the Roman [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] endured, ensuring the so-called [[Byzantine Papacy]]. Justinian constructed the [[Hagia Sophia]], a great example of [[Byzantine architecture]], and the first outbreak of the centuries-long [[first plague pandemic]] took place. At [[Ctesiphon]], the Sasanians completed the [[Taq Kasra]], the colossal ''[[iwan]]'' of which is the largest single-span [[Vault (architecture)|vault]] of unreinforced [[Mudbrick|brickwork]] in the world and the triumph of [[Sasanian architecture]].<ref name=":0" />{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The middle of the 6th century was characterized by extreme climate events ([[Volcanic winter of 536|the volcanic winter of 535–536]] and the [[Late Antique Little Ice Age]]) and a disastrous pandemic (the [[Plague of Justinian]] in 541). The effects of these events in the social and political life are still under discussion. In the 7th century the disastrous [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]] and the campaigns of [[Khosrow II]] and [[Heraclius]] facilitated the emergence of [[Islam]] in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]]. Subsequent [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]] and [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] overthrew the Sasanian Empire and permanently wrested two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory from Roman control, forming the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. The [[Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty]] began the [[Middle Byzantium|middle Byzantine period]], and together with the establishment of the later 7th century [[Umayyad Caliphate]], generally marks the end of late antiquity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gaudio |first=Andrew |title=Research Guides: Late Antiquity: A Resource Guide: Introduction |url=https://guides.loc.gov/late-antiquity |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=guides.loc.gov |language=en}}</ref>