Editing Liber (section)

==Origins and establishment==
Before his official adoption as a Roman deity, Liber was companion to two different goddesses in two separate, archaic Italian fertility cults; [[Ceres (Roman mythology)|Ceres]], an agricultural and fertility goddess of Rome's [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] neighbours, and [[Libera (mythology)|Libera]], who was Liber's female equivalent. In ancient [[Lavinium]], he was a phallic deity. Latin ''liber'' means "free", or "free one"; when coupled with "pater", it means "The Free Father", who personifies freedom and champions its attendant rights, as opposed to dependent servitude. "Liber" is also understood in terms of "libation", the ritual offering of drink, related to Greek "spondé" and English "to spend".  Roman writers of the late Republic and early Empire offer various etymological and poetic speculations based on this trope, to explain certain features of Liber's cult.<ref name="google1996">[[Barbette Spaeth|Barbette Stanley Spaeth]], ''The Roman goddess Ceres'', University of Texas Press, 1996, pp.[https://books.google.com/books?id=5g3YDlPvbeMC&q=lavinium&pg=PA142 8], [https://books.google.com/books?id=5g3YDlPvbeMC&q=Liber%20Cicero&pg=PA44 44.]</ref><ref>C.M.C. Green, "Varro's Three Theologies and their influence on the Fasti", in Geraldine Herbert-Brown, (ed)., ''Ovid's Fasti: historical readings at its bimillennium'', Oxford University Press, 2002. pp. 78-80.[https://books.google.com/books?id=CeFErNPdXOMC&dq=Ovid's%20Fasti%3A%20historical%20readings%20at%20its%20bimillennium%20%20By%20Geraldine%20Herbert-Brown&pg=PA78]</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Hornblower |first=Simon |title=Hellenism, Hellenization |date=2015-12-22 |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2994 |access-date=2025-04-28 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2994 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5}}</ref>

Liber entered Rome's historical tradition soon after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the establishment of the Republic and the first of many threatened or actual [[Secessio plebis|plebeian secessions]] from Rome's patrician authority. According to [[Livy]], the [[Roman dictator|dictator]] [[Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis|A. Postumius]] vowed games ''([[ludi]])'' and a joint public [[Roman temple|temple]] to a [[Aventine Triad|Triad of Ceres, Liber and Libera]] on Rome's [[Aventine Hill]], {{circa|496 BC}}.<ref>The vow was made in hope of victory against the Latins, the relief of a famine in Rome and the co-operation of Rome's plebeian soldiery in the coming war despite the threat of their secession.</ref> In 493 the vow was fulfilled: the new Aventine temple was dedicated and ''[[Ludi|ludi scaenici]]'' ([[Theatre of ancient Rome|religious dramas]]) were held in honour of Liber, for the benefit of the [[SPQR|Roman people]]. These early ''ludi scaenici'' have been suggested as the earliest of their kind in Rome, and may represent the earliest official festival to Liber, or an early form of his [[Liberalia]] festival.<ref name="autogenerated133">[[T.P. Wiseman]], ''Remus: a Roman myth'', Cambridge University Press, 1995, p.133.</ref> The formal, official development of the Aventine Triad may have encouraged the assimilation of its individual deities to Greek equivalents: Ceres to [[Demeter]], Liber to [[Dionysus]] and Libera to [[Persephone]] or Kore.<ref name="google1996"/><ref>T.P. Wiseman, ''Remus: a Roman myth'', Cambridge University Press, 1995, p.133 and note 20.</ref>

Liber's patronage of Rome's largest, least powerful class of citizens (the [[plebs|plebs, or plebeian commoners]]) associates him with particular forms of plebeian disobedience to the civil and religious authority claimed by Rome's Republican [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] elite. The Aventine Triad has been described as parallel to the [[Capitoline Triad]] of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Quirinus]] on the Capitoline Hill, within the city's sacred boundary ([[pomerium]]): and as its "copy and antithesis".<ref>Barbette Stanley Spaeth, ''The Roman goddess Ceres'', University of Texas Press, 1996, pp. 6-8, 92, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5g3YDlPvbeMC&q=lavinium&pg=PA92]. Spaeth cites Henri Le Bonniec, ''Le culte de Cérès à Rome. Des origines à la fin de la République,'' Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1958, for the Aventine cult with its central female deity as "copy and antithesis" of the early, entirely male Capitoline Triad. When Mars and Quirinus were later replaced by two goddesses, Jupiter remained the primary focus of Capitoline cult.</ref> The Aventine Triad was apparently installed at the behest of the [[Sibylline Books]] but Liber's position within it seems equivocal from the outset. He was a god of the grape and of wine; his early ''ludi scaenici'' virtually defined their genre thereafter as satirical, subversive theatre in a lawful religious context. Some aspects of his cults remained potentially [[mos maiorum|un-Roman]] and offered a focus for civil disobedience. Liber asserted plebeian rights to ecstatic release, self-expression and free speech; he was ''Liber Pater'', the Free Father &ndash; a divine personification of liberty, father of [[Marsyas#Prophecy and free speech at Rome|plebeian wisdoms and plebeian augury]].<ref>Barbette Stanley Spaeth, ''The Roman goddess Ceres'', University of Texas Press, 1996, pp. 6-8, 92, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5g3YDlPvbeMC&q=lavinium&pg=PA92] While the Aventine temple and ludi may represent a patrician attempt to reconcile or at least molify the plebs, plebeian opposition to patrician domination continued throughout contemporary and later Republican history.</ref>

===Liber, Bacchus and Dionysus===
Liber's associations with wine, inebriation, uninhibited freedom and the subversion of the powerful made him a close equivalent to the Greek god [[Dionysus]], who was Romanised as [[Bacchus]].  In Graeco-Roman culture, Dionysus was [[euhemerism|euhemerised]] as a historical figure, a heroic saviour, world-traveller and founder of cities; and conqueror of India, whence he had returned in the first ever [[Roman triumph|triumph]], drawn in a golden chariot by tigers, accompanied by a retinue of drunken [[satyrs]] and [[maenad]]s. In some cults, and probably in the popular imagination, Liber was gradually assimilated to Bacchus and came to share his Romanised  "Dionysian" iconography and myths. Pliny calls him "the first to establish the practice of buying and selling; he also invented the diadem, the emblem of royalty, and the triumphal procession."<ref>See Pliny, ''Historia Naturalis'', 7.57 (ed. Bostock) at Perseus: [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137&layout=&loc=7.57 Tufts.edu]</ref> Roman mosaics and sarcophagi attest to various representations of this exotic triumphal procession. In Roman and Greek literary sources from the late Republic and Imperial era, several notable triumphs feature similar, distinctively "Bacchic" processional elements, recalling the supposedly historic "Triumph of Liber".<ref>[[Mary Beard (classicist)|Beard, Mary]]: ''The Roman Triumph'', The Belknap Press of [[Harvard University Press]], Cambridge, Mass., and London, England, 2007, pp. 315 - 7.</ref>

===Liber and the Bacchanalia of 186 BC===
Very little is known of Liber's official and unofficial cults during the early to middle Republican era. Their Dionysiac or Bacchic elements seem to have been regarded as tolerably ancient, home-grown and manageable by Roman authorities until 186 BC, shortly after the end of the [[Second Punic War]]. Livy, writing 200 years after the event, gives a highly theatrical account of the [[Bacchanalia]]'s introduction by a foreign soothsayer, a "Greek of mean condition... a low operator of sacrifices". The cult spreads in secret, "like a plague". The lower classes, plebeians, women, the young, morally weak and effeminate males ("men most like women") are particularly susceptible: all such persons have ''leuitas animi'' (fickle or uneducated minds) but even Rome's elite are not immune. The Bacchanalia's priestesses urge their deluded flock to break all social and sexual boundaries, even to visit ritual murder on those who oppose them or betray their secrets: but a loyal servant reveals all to a shocked senate, whose quick thinking, wise actions and piety save Rome from the divine wrath and disaster it would otherwise have suffered.<ref>Sarolta Takacs, ''Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons: Women in Roman Religion'',  University of Texas Press,  2008, p.95. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SnUCcOvhVKwC&dq=Takacs+Livy+%22men+most+like+women%22&pg=PA95] See also Beard, M.,  Price, S.,  North, J.,  ''Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History'', illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 93 - 96, and Walsh, PG, ''Making a drama out of a Crisis: Livy on the Bacchanalia'', Greece & Rome, Vol XLIII,  No. 2, October 1996.</ref> Livy's ''[[dramatis personae]]'', stylistic flourishes and tropes probably draw on Roman satyr-plays rather than the Bacchanalia themselves.<ref>The plots of Satyr plays would have been familiar to Roman audiences from around the 3rd century BC onwards. See Robert Rouselle, Liber-Dionysus in Early Roman Drama, ''The Classical Journal'', 82, 3 (1987), p. 191.[https://www.jstor.org/pss/3297899]</ref>

The Bacchanalia cults may have offered challenge to Rome's [[Mos maiorum|traditional, official values and morality]] but they were practiced in Roman Italy as Dionysiac cults for several decades before their alleged disclosure, and were probably no more secretive than any other mystery cult. Nevertheless, their presence at the Aventine provoked an investigation. The consequent legislation against them &ndash; the ''[[Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus]]'' of 186 BC &ndash; was framed as if in response to a dire and unexpected national and religious emergency, and its execution was unprecedented in thoroughness, breadth and ferocity. Modern scholarship interprets this reaction as the senate's assertion of its own civil and religious authority throughout the Italian peninsula, following the recent [[Second Punic War|Punic War]] and subsequent social and political instability.<ref>During the Punic crisis, some foreign cults and oracles had been repressed, on much smaller scale and not outside Rome itself. See Erich S. Gruen, ''Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy'', BRILL, 1990, pp.34-78: on precedents see p.41 ff.[https://books.google.com/books?id=dnOPjX6GOrgC&dq=Gruen%201990%20Bacchus&pg=PA34]</ref> The cult was officially represented as the workings of a secret, illicit state within the Roman state, a conspiracy of priestesses and misfits, capable of anything. Bacchus himself was not the problem; like any deity, he had a right to cult. Rather than risk his divine offense, the Bacchanalia were not banned outright. They were made to submit to official regulation, under threat of ferocious penalties: some 6,000 persons are thought to have been put to death. The reformed Bacchic cults bore little resemblance to the crowded, ecstatic and uninhibited Bacchanalia: every cult meeting was restricted to five initiates and each could be held only with a praetor's consent. Similar attrition may have been imposed on Liber's cults; attempts to sever him from perceived or actual associations with the Bacchanalia seems clear from the official transference of the Liberalia ''ludi'' of 17 March to Ceres' [[Cerealia]] of 12–19 April. Once the ferocity of official clampdown eased off, the Liberalia games were officially restored, though probably in modified form.<ref name="autogenerated133"/> Illicit Bacchanals persisted covertly for many years, particularly in Southern Italy, their likely place of origin.<ref>See Sarolta A. Takács, Politics and Religion in the Bacchanalian Affair of 186 B.C.E., ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology,'' Vol. 100, (2000), p.301. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3185221]</ref><ref>Beard, M.,  Price, S.,  North, J.,  ''Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History'', illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 93 - 96.</ref>