Editing Life expectancy (section)

==Human patterns==
===Maximum===
[[Oldest people|The longest verified lifespan]] for any human is that of French woman [[Jeanne Calment]], who is verified as having lived to age 122 years, 164 days, between 21 February 1875 and 4 August 1997. This is referred to as the "[[maximum life span]]", which is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years any human is known to have lived. Although maximum life expectancy is around 125 years, genetic enhancements could allow humans to live for a maximum of 245 years,  according to InsideTracker.<ref name="Santrock">{{cite book|vauthors=Santrock J|date=2007|title=Life Expectancy. A Topical Approach to: Life-Span Development|pages=128–132|location=New York, New York|publisher=The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.|isbn=978-0-07-313376-8}}</ref> According to a study by biologists Bryan G. Hughes and Siegfried Hekimi, there is no evidence for a limit on human lifespan.<ref>{{cite press release|date=28 June 2017|title=No detectable limit to how long people can live|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/06/170628131500.htm|publisher=[[Science Daily]]|access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hughes BG, Hekimi S|title=Many possible maximum lifespan trajectories|journal=Nature|volume=546|issue=7660|pages=E8–E9|date=June 2017|pmid=28658230|doi=10.1038/nature22786|s2cid=4464500|bibcode=2017Natur.546E...8H}}</ref> However, this view has been questioned on the basis of error patterns.<ref name="Newman_2018">{{cite journal|vauthors=Newman SJ|title=Errors as a primary cause of late-life mortality deceleration and plateaus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=16|issue=12|pages=e2006776|date=December 2018|pmid=30571676|pmc=6301557|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006776|doi-access=free}}</ref> A theoretical study shows that the maximum life expectancy at birth is limited by the human life characteristic value δ, which is around 104 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Xiaoping|date=December 2015|title=Life equations for the senescence process|journal=Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports|language=en|volume=4|pages=228–233|doi=10.1016/j.bbrep.2015.09.020|pmc=5669524|pmid=29124208}}</ref>

===Variation over time===
{{further|Longevity|List of countries by past life expectancy}}
The following information is derived from the 1961 ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and other sources, some with questionable accuracy. Unless otherwise stated, it represents estimates of the life expectancies of the [[world population]] as a whole. In many instances, life expectancy varied considerably according to class and gender.

Life expectancy at birth takes account of [[infant mortality]] and [[child mortality]] but not prenatal mortality.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; font-size:95%"
|-
! Era !! Life expectancy at birth in years !! Notes
|-
|[[Paleolithic]]||style="text-align:center;"|22–33<ref name="Kotre1997" />||With modern hunter-gatherer populations' estimated average life expectancy at birth of 33 years, life expectancy for the 60% reaching age 15 averages 39 remaining years.<ref name=kaplanetal2000>{{cite journal|year=2000|vauthors=Kaplan H, Hill K, Lancaster J, Hurtado AM|title=A Theory of Human Life History Evolution: Diet, Intelligence and Longevity|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume=9|issue=4|pages=156–185|doi=10.1002/1520-6505(2000)9:4<156::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-7|s2cid=2363289|url=http://www.unm.edu/~hkaplan/KaplanHillLancasterHurtado_2000_LHEvolution.pdf|access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref>
|-
|[[Neolithic]]||style="text-align:center;"|20<ref name=Galor&Moav2007>{{cite web|year=2007|vauthors=Galor O, Moav O|url=http://www.brown.edu/academics/economics/sites/brown.edu.academics.economics/files/uploads/2007-14_paper.pdf|title=The Neolithic Revolution and Contemporary Variations in Life Expectancy|publisher=[[Brown University]] Working Paper|access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref>–33<ref name=Lawrence1984>{{citation|year=1984|vauthors=Angel JL|title=Health as a crucial factor in the changes from hunting to developed farming in the eastern Mediterranean|journal=Proceedings of Meeting on Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture|pages=51–73}}</ref>||Based on Early Neolithic data, life expectancy at age 15 would be 28–33 years.<ref name="Angel_1969">{{cite journal|vauthors=Angel JL|title=The bases of paleodemography|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=30|issue=3|pages=427–437|date=May 1969|pmid=5791021|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330300314}}</ref>
|-
|[[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]]<ref name="sticerd.lse.ac.uk">{{cite web|year=2005|vauthors=Galor O, Moav O|url=http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/dg09102006.pdf|title=Natural Selection and the Evolution of Life Expectancy|publisher=[[Brown University]] Working Paper|access-date=4 November 2010}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|26||Based on Early and Middle Bronze Age data, life expectancy at age 15 would be 28–36 years.<ref name="Angel_1969"/>
|-
|[[Classical Greece]]<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=40752487|title=Economic Growth in Ancient Greece|vauthors=Morris I|journal=Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics|year=2004|volume=160|issue=4|pages=709–742|doi=10.1628/0932456042776050}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|25<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Hansen MH|title=The shotgun method: the demography of the ancient Greek city-state culture.|publisher=University of Missouri Press|date=2006|page=55|isbn=978-0-8262-6548-7}}</ref>–28<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/393100/mortality|title=Mortality|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 November 2010}}</ref>||Based on Athens Agora and Corinth data, life expectancy at age 15 would be 37–41 years.<ref name="Angel_1969"/> Most Greeks and Romans died young. About half of all children died before adolescence. Those who survived to the age of 30 had a reasonable chance of reaching 50 or 60. The truly elderly, however, were rare. Because so many died in childhood, life expectancy at birth was probably between 20 and 30 years.<ref name="Ryan2021">{{cite book|vauthors=Ryan G|title=Naked Statues, Fat Gladiators, and War Elephants: Frequently Asked Questions about the Ancient Greeks and Romans|date=2021-09-01|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-63388-703-9|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFkzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ancient Rome]]||style="text-align:center;"|20–33
<ref name="Boatwright2021">
{{cite book|vauthors=Boatwright MT|title=Imperial Women of Rome: Power, Gender, Context|date=2021|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-045589-7|page=87|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W78lEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87}}
</ref><ref>
* {{cite book|vauthors=Scheidel W|title=Debating Roman Demography|date=2017|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-35109-7|page=29|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|quote=25–30}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=Flower HI|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-99238-1|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MzH6AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105}}
* {{cite journal|vauthors=Scheidel W|author1-link=Walter Scheidel|title=Growing up fatherless in antiquity: the demographic background|journal=Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics|date=2006|page=2|url=https://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/scheidel/060601.pdf}}
* {{cite book|vauthors=Wolf AP|title=Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century|date=2005|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-5141-4|page=97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OW1nuQxcIQgC&pg=PA97}}
</ref><ref name="Saller1997"/><ref name="Ryan2021"/><ref name="Kotre1997"/><ref name="Carrieri2005">
{{cite journal|vauthors=Carrieri MP, Serraino D|title=Longevity of popes and artists between the 13th and the 19th century|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=34|issue=6|pages=1435–1436|date=December 2005|pmid=16260451|doi=10.1093/ije/dyi211|doi-access=free}}
</ref>
||Data is lacking, but computer models provide the estimate. If a person survived to age 20, they could expect to live around 30 years more. Life expectancy was probably slightly longer for women than men.<ref name=Frier2008>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192|vauthors=Frier B|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-139-05439-3|pages=788–789|chapter=Chapter 27: Demographics}}</ref>
Life expectancy at age 1 reached 34–41 remaining years for the 67<ref name="Boatwright2021"/>–75% surviving the first year. For the 55-65% surviving to age 5, remaining life expectancy reached around 40–45,<ref name="Saller1997"/> while the ~50% reaching age 10 could expect another 40 years of life.<ref name="Boatwright2021"/> Average remaining years fell to 33–39 at age 15; ~20 at age 40;<ref name="Boatwright2021"/> 14–18 at age 50; ~10–12 at age 60; and ~6–7 at age 70.<ref name="Saller1997">{{cite book|vauthors=Saller RP|title=Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family|date=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59978-8|pages=22–25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VbZEvtcGbMC&pg=PA23}}</ref><ref name=Frier2008/>
|-
| Wang clan of China, 1st century AD – 1749|| style="text-align:center;" |35|| Life expectancy at age 1 reached 47 years for the 72% surviving the first year.<ref name="Maher2021"/><ref name="Bagchi2008">{{cite book|vauthors=Bagchi AK|title=Perilous Passage: Mankind and the Global Ascendancy of Capital|date=2008|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4617-0515-4|page=138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHsHEoYh3V0C&pg=PA138}}</ref>
|-
|[[Early Middle Ages]] (Europe, from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century)|| style="text-align:center;" |30–35|| A Gaulish boy surviving to age 20 might expect to live 25 more years, while a woman at age 20 could normally expect about 17 more years. Anyone who survived until 40 had a good chance of another 15 to 20 years.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Bitel LM|title=Women in Early Medieval Europe, 400–1100|date=2002-10-24|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59773-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XRudk_NcA7cC&pg=PA25}}</ref>
|-
|[[Mesoamerica|Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica]]|| style="text-align:center;" |20–40||Expectation of life at birth 13–36 years for various Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, most of the results lying in the range 24–32 years.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=McCaa R|url=https://users.pop.umn.edu/~rmccaa/mxpoprev/cambridg3.htm|title=The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution}}</ref> Aztec life expectancy 41.2 years for men and 42.1 for women.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Mc Krause S|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwCqDwAAQBAJ|title=Life in the Aztec Empire|publisher=Brainy Bookstore Mckrause}}</ref>
|-
|[[England in the Middle Ages|Late medieval English peerage]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/guide12/part06.html|title=Time traveller's guide to Medieval Britain|publisher=Channel4.com|access-date=4 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/241864.stm|title=A millennium of health improvement|publisher=BBC News|date=27 December 1998|access-date=4 November 2010}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|30–33<ref name="Carrieri2005"/>|| Around a third of infants died in their first year.<ref name="Kotre1997"/> Life expectancy at age 10 reached 32.2 remaining years, and for those who survived to 25, the remaining life expectancy was 23.3 years. Such estimates reflected the life expectancy of adult males from the higher ranks of English society in the Middle Ages, and were similar to that computed for monks of the Christ Church in Canterbury during the 15th century.<ref name="Carrieri2005"/> At age 21, life expectancy of an aristocrat was an additional 43 years.<ref name="Expectations of Life">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4DLK7zLxYMC&pg=PA8|title=Expectations of Life|vauthors=Lancaster HO|page=8|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|date=1990|isbn=978-0-387-97105-6}}</ref>
|-
|[[Early modern Britain]] (16th – 18th century)<ref name="sticerd.lse.ac.uk"/> || style="text-align:center;" |33–40||18th-century male life expectancy at birth was 34 years.<ref name="pomeranz">{{citation|vauthors=Pomeranz K|title=The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy|page=37|year=2000|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-09010-8|author-link=Kenneth Pomeranz}}</ref> Female expectation of remaining years at age 15 rose from ~33 years around the 15th-16th centuries to ~42 in the 18th century.<ref name=Griffin2008>{{cite journal|vauthors=Griffin JP|title=Changing life expectancy throughout history|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=101|issue=12|pages=577|date=December 2008|pmid=19092024|pmc=2625386|doi=10.1258/jrsm.2008.08k037}} Note: Author is clearly using the term "life expectancy" to mean total years, as is evident from the fact that a life expectancy of 79.2 is given for a 15 year old girl in 1989.</ref>
|-
|18th-century [[England]]<ref name="OurWorldInData"/><ref name="Kotre1997">{{cite book|vauthors=Kotre JN, Hall E|title=Seasons of Life: The Dramatic Journey from Birth to Death|date=1997|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-08512-5|pages=47–49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7hiKxl9jZ4C&pg=PA47}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|25–40|| For most of the century it ranged from 35 to 40; but in the 1720s it dipped as low as 25.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/> During the second half of the century it averaged 37,<ref name="Li2021"/> while for the elite it passed 40 and approached 50.<ref name="Maher2021">{{cite book|vauthors=Maher G|title=The Imperial Roman Economy|date=2021|publisher=Kilnamanagh|isbn=978-1-9996262-2-8|pages=123, 137, 123–151|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqAlEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123}}</ref>
|-
|Pre-Champlain [[Canadian Maritimes]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Voices and Visions: A Story of Canada|vauthors=Francis D|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-542169-9|location=Canada|pages=21}}</ref>
|style="text-align:center;"|60
|[[Samuel de Champlain]] wrote that in his visits to [[Mi'kmaq]] and Huron communities, he met people over 100 years old. [[Daniel N. Paul|Daniel Paul]] attributes the incredible lifespan in the region to low stress and a healthy diet of lean meats, diverse vegetables, and legumes.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Paul DN|author-link=Daniel N. Paul|title=We Were Not the Savages: A Micmac Perspective on the Collision of European and Aboriginal Civilizations|url=https://archive.org/details/wewerenotsavages0000paul_t1q7|url-access=registration|edition=1st|year=1993|publisher=Nimbus|isbn=978-1-55109-056-6}}</ref>
|-
|18th-century [[Prussia]]<ref name=pomeranz/>||style="text-align:center;"|24.7||For males.<ref name=pomeranz/>
|-
|18th-century [[France]]<ref name=pomeranz/>||style="text-align:center;"|27.5–30||For males:<ref name=pomeranz/> 24.8 years in 1740–1749, 27.9 years in 1750–1759, 33.9 years in 1800–1809.<ref name="Bagchi2008"/>
|-
|18th-century American colonies<ref name="Kotre1997"/>||style="text-align:center;"|28||Massachusetts colonists who reached the age of 50 could expect to live until 71, and those who were still alive at 60 could expect to reach 75.
|-
|Beginning of the 19th century<ref name="OurWorldInData">{{cite journal|author1=Roser M|author1-link=Max Roser|author2=Ortiz-Ospina E|author3=Ritchie H|author3-link=Hannah Ritchie|title=Life Expectancy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy#how-did-life-expectancy-change-over-time|journal=Our World in Data|location=How did life expectancy change over time?|date=2019|orig-date=2013}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|~29|| At the beginning of the 19th century, no country in the world had a life expectancy at birth longer than 40 years, England, Belgium and the Netherlands came closest, each reaching 40 years by the 1840s (by which time they had been surpassed by Norway, Sweden and Denmark). India's life expectancy is estimated at ~25 years,<ref name="OurWorldInData"/> while Europe averaged ~33 years.<ref name="Li2021">{{cite book|vauthors=Li B|title=An Early Modern Economy in China|date=2021|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-47920-2|pages=246–247|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7H2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA247}}</ref>
|-
|Early 19th-century [[England]]<ref name="sticerd.lse.ac.uk"/><ref name="OurWorldInData"/><ref name="Maher2021"/>||style="text-align:center;"|40|| Remaining years of life averaged ~45<ref name="Maher2021" />–47 for the 84% who survived the first year. Life expectancy fell to ~40 years at age 20, then ~20 years at age 50 and ~10 years at age 70.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/> For a 15-year-old girl it was ~40–45.<ref name="Griffin2008"/> For the upper-class, LEB rose from ~45 to 50.<ref name="Maher2021"/>
Only half of the people born in the early 19th century made it past their 50th birthday. In contrast, 97% of the people born in 21st century England and Wales can expect to live longer than 50 years.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/>
|-
|19th-century [[British Raj|British India]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?year=1810|title=Life expectancy|work=[[Our World in Data]]|access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|25.4||
|-
|19th-century world average<ref name="OurWorldInData"/>||style="text-align:center;"|28.5–32|| Over the course of the century: Europe rose from ~33 to 43, the Americas from ~35 to 41, Oceania ~35 to 48, Asia ~28, Africa 26.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/> In 1820s France, LEB was ~38, and for the 80% that survived, it rose to ~47. For Moscow serfs, LEB was ~34, and for the 66% that survived, it rose to ~36.<ref name="Maher2021"/> Western Europe in 1830 was ~33 years, while for the people of Hau-Lou in China, it was ~40.<ref name="Li2021"/> The LEB for a 10-year-old in Sweden rose from ~44 to ~54.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/>
|-
|1900 world average<ref name="WHO Consultant 2006">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/global_health_histories/seminars/presentation07.pdf|title=Health, history and hard choices: Funding dilemmas in a fast-changing world|access-date=4 November 2010|vauthors=Prentice T|website=World Health Organization: Global Health Histories}}</ref>||style="text-align:center;"|31–32<ref name="OurWorldInData"/>|| Around 48 years in Oceania, 43 in Europe, and 41 in the Americas.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/> Around 47 in the U.S.<ref name="Kotre1997"/> and around 48 for 15-year-old girls in England.<ref name="Griffin2008"/>
|-
|1950 world average<ref name="WHO Consultant 2006"/>||style="text-align:center;"|45.7–48<ref name="OurWorldInData" />|| Around 60 years in Europe, North America, Oceania, Japan, and parts of South America; but only 41 in Asia and 36 in Africa. Norway led with 72, while in Mali it was merely 26.<ref name="OurWorldInData"/>
|-
|2019–2020 world average|| style="text-align:center;" |72.6–73.2 <br><ref name="OurWorldInData"/><ref>72.6
* {{cite web|publisher=U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs|work=Population Division|title=World Population Prospects 2019|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf|access-date=28 June 2021|archive-date=12 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512070724/https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf|url-status=dead}}
72.7
* {{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Data|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref name=Worldometer>
{{cite web|title=Life Expectancy by Country and in the World|work=Worldometer|url=https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/life-expectancy/}}</ref> ||| {{plainlist|
* Females: 75.6 years
* Males: 70.8 years
* Range: ~54 (Central African Republic) – 85.3 (Hong Kong)<ref name="Worldometer" />
}}
|}
English life expectancy at birth averaged about 36 years in the 17th and 18th centuries, one of the highest levels in the world although infant and child mortality remained higher than in later periods. Life expectancy was under 25 years in the early [[Colony of Virginia]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Medicine & Health|url=http://www.stratfordhall.org/educational-resources/teacher-resources/medicine-health/|work=Stratfordhall.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215062621/http://stratfordhall.org/educational-resources/teacher-resources/medicine-health/|archive-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> and in seventeenth-century New England, about 40% died before reaching adulthood.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/usdeath.cfm|title=Death in Early America|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230203658/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/usdeath.cfm|archive-date=30 December 2010|work=Digital History}}</ref> During the [[Industrial Revolution]], the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change|title=Population Change Modernization|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=25 May 2024}}</ref> Recorded deaths among children under the age of 5 years fell in London from 74.5% of the recorded births in 1730–49 to 31.8% in 1810–29,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Buer MC|title=Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution|location=London|publisher=George Routledge & Sons|date=1926|page=30|isbn=978-0-415-38218-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/foundling_01.shtml|publisher=BBC|title=History—The Foundling Hospital|date=1 May 2001}}</ref> though this overstates mortality and its fall because of net immigration (hence more dying in the metropolis than were born there) and incomplete registration (particularly of births, and especially in the earlier period). English life expectancy at birth reached 41 years in the 1840s, 43 in the 1870s and 46 in the 1890s, though infant mortality remained at around 150 per thousand throughout this period.

[[File:Life expectancy in 1800, 1950, and 2015.png|thumb|Life expectancy in 1800, 1950, and 2015 – visualization by [[Our World in Data]]]]

[[Public health]] measures are credited with much of the recent increase in life expectancy. During the 20th century, despite a brief drop due to the [[1918 flu pandemic]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gapminder.org/world/#$majorMode=chart$is;shi=t;ly=2003;lb=f;il=t;fs=11;al=30;stl=t;st=t;nsl=t;se=t$wst;tts=C$ts;sp=5.59290322580644;ti=1918$zpv;v=0$inc_x;mmid=XCOORDS;iid=phAwcNAVuyj1jiMAkmq1iMg;by=ind$inc_y;mmid=YCOORDS;iid=phAwcNAVuyj2tPLxKvvnNPA;by=ind$inc_s;uniValue=8.21;iid=phAwcNAVuyj0XOoBL_n5tAQ;by=ind$inc_c;uniValue=255;gid=CATID0;by=grp$map_x;scale=log;dataMin=194;dataMax=96846$map_y;scale=lin;dataMin=23;dataMax=86$map_s;sma=49;smi=2.65$cd;bd=0$inds=;modified=75|title=Gapminder World|publisher=Gapminder Foundation}}</ref> the average lifespan in the United States increased by more than 30 years, of which 25 years can be attributed to advances in public health.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=CDC|title=Ten great public health achievements—United States, 1900–1999|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=48|issue=12|pages=241–243|date=April 1999|pmid=10220250|url=http://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00056796.htm}} [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/281/16/1481 Reprinted] in: {{cite journal|vauthors=|title=From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Ten great public health achievements—United States, 1900–1999|journal=JAMA|volume=281|issue=16|pages=1481|date=April 1999|pmid=10227303|doi=10.1001/jama.281.16.1481|s2cid=2030845|doi-access=}}</ref>

===Regional variations===
{{further|List of countries by life expectancy}}There are great variations in life expectancy between different parts of the world, mostly caused by differences in [[public health]], medical care, and diet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Worthy |first1=L. D. |last2=Lavigne |first2=T. |last3=Romero |first3=F. |date=2020-07-27 |title=Life Expectancy |url=https://openbooks.braou.ac.in/culturepsychology/chapter/life-expectancy/ |language=en}}</ref>

Human beings are expected to live on average 60 years in [[Eswatini]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eswatini/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|date=4 November 2021}}</ref> and 82.6 years in Japan.{{efn|Japan's recorded life expectancy may have been very slightly increased by counting many infant deaths as stillborn.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Coale AJ, Banister J|date=December 1996|title=Five decades of missing females in China|journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|volume=140|issue=4|pages=421–450|jstor=987286|author-link=Ansley J. Coale}} Also printed as {{cite journal|vauthors=Coale AJ, Banister J|title=Five decades of missing females in China|journal=Demography|volume=31|issue=3|pages=459–479|date=August 1994|pmid=7828766|doi=10.2307/2061752|s2cid=24724998|doi-access=free|jstor=2061752}}
</ref>}} An analysis published in 2011 in ''[[The Lancet]]'' attributes Japanese life expectancy to [[equal opportunities]], excellent [[public health]], and a healthy diet.<ref name="guardian japan life expectancy">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/30/japan-life-expectancy-factors|title=Japan's life expectancy 'down to equality and public health measures'|work=The Guardian|date=30 August 2011|access-date=31 August 2011|vauthors=Boseley S|location=London|quote=Japan has the highest life expectancy in the world but the reasons says an analysis, are as much to do with equality and public health measures as diet.... According to a paper in a Lancet series on healthcare in Japan....}}</ref><ref name="lancet what has made the population of japan healthy">{{cite journal|vauthors=Ikeda N, Saito E, Kondo N, Inoue M, Ikeda S, Satoh T, Wada K, Stickley A, Katanoda K, Mizoue T, Noda M, Iso H, Fujino Y, Sobue T, Tsugane S, Naghavi M, Ezzati M, Shibuya K|title=What has made the population of Japan healthy?|journal=Lancet|volume=378|issue=9796|pages=1094–1105|date=September 2011|pmid=21885105|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61055-6|quote=Reduction in health inequalities with improved average population health was partly attributable to equal educational opportunities and financial access to care.|s2cid=33124920}}</ref>

The [[World Health Organization]] announced that the [[COVID-19]] pandemic reversed the trend of steady gain in life expectancy at birth.  The pandemic wiped out nearly a decade of progress in improving life expectancy.<ref>{{cite news|title=COVID-19 eliminated a decade of progress in global level of life expectancy|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/24-05-2024-covid-19-eliminated-a-decade-of-progress-in-global-level-of-life-expectancy|access-date=3 July 2024|publisher=World Health Organization|date=24 May 2024}}</ref>

==== Africa ====
[[File:Comparison subsaharan life expectancy.svg|thumb|upright|Graphs of life expectancy at birth for some sub-Saharan countries showing the fall in the 1990s primarily due to the [[HIV pandemic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN/countries/1W|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years)—Data|publisher=World Bank Group}}</ref>]]

During the last 200 years, African countries have generally not had the same improvements in mortality rates that have been enjoyed by countries in Asia, Latin America, and Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wealth & Health of Nations|url=http://www.gapminder.org/world/#$majorMode=chart$is;shi=t;ly=2003;lb=f;il=t;fs=11;al=30;stl=t;st=t;nsl=t;se=t$wst;tts=C$ts;sp=5.59290322580644;ti=2013$zpv;v=0$inc_x;mmid=XCOORDS;iid=phAwcNAVuyj1jiMAkmq1iMg;by=ind$inc_y;mmid=YCOORDS;iid=phAwcNAVuyj2tPLxKvvnNPA;by=ind$inc_s;uniValue=8.21;iid=phAwcNAVuyj0XOoBL_n5tAQ;by=ind$inc_c;uniValue=255;gid=CATID0;by=grp$map_x;scale=log;dataMin=194;dataMax=96846$map_y;scale=lin;dataMin=23;dataMax=86$map_s;sma=49;smi=2.65$cd;bd=0$inds=;example=75|access-date=26 June 2015|publisher=Gapminder Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2022|title=Life Expectancy in the U.S. Dropped for the Second Year in a Row in 2021|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/20220831.htm|access-date=31 August 2022|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> This is most apparent by the impact of [[AIDS]] on many African countries. According to projections made by the [[United Nations]] in 2002, the life expectancy at birth for 2010–2015 (if [[HIV/AIDS]] did not exist) would have been:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.un.org/ESA/population/publications/wpp2002/WPP2002-HIGHLIGHTSrev1.PDFUN|title=World Population Prospects – The 2002 Revision|volume=I: Comprehensive Tables|publisher=United Nations Secretariat, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division|date=2003|page=24|access-date=15 December 2020|archive-date=7 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507023722/https://www.un.org/ESA/population/publications/wpp2002/WPP2002-HIGHLIGHTSrev1.PDFUN|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 70.7 years instead of 31.6 years, Botswana
* 69.9 years instead of 41.5 years, South Africa
* 70.5 years instead of 31.8 years, Zimbabwe

==== Eastern Europe ====
On average, [[eastern Europe]]ans tend to live shorter lives than their western counterparts. For example, [[Spaniards]] from [[Madrid]] can expect to live to 85, but [[Bulgarians]] from the region of [[Severozapaden]] are predicted to live just past their 73rd birthday. This is in large part due to poor health habits, such as heavy smoking and high alcoholism in the region, and environmental factors, such as high air pollution.<ref>{{cite news|title=Why life expectancy is lower in eastern Europe|date=20 September 2018|url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2018/09/20/why-life-expectancy-is-lower-in-eastern-europe|url-access=subscription|access-date=2024-06-03|newspaper=The Economist|issn=0013-0613|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731164643/https://www.economist.com/europe/2018/09/20/why-life-expectancy-is-lower-in-eastern-europe|archive-date=2023-07-31}}</ref>


==== United States ====
[[File:Life expectancy post-COVID.png|thumb|Life expectancy from 1990 to 2021 in the US, UK, Netherlands, and Austria]]In 2022, the life expectancy was 77.5 in the United States, a decline from 2014, but an increase from 2021. In what has been described as a "life expectancy crisis", there were a total of 13 million "missing Americans" from 1980 to 2021, deaths that would have been averted if it had the standard mortality rate of "[[Developed country|wealthy nations]]".{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

The annual number of "missing Americans" has been increasing, with 622,534 in 2019 alone.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Missing Americans: Unprecedented US Mortality Far Exceeds Other Wealthy Nations|url=https://www.bu.edu/sph/news/articles/2023/the-missing-americans-unprecedented-us-mortality-far-exceeds-other-wealthy-nations/|access-date=2024-06-03|publisher=Boston University|department=School of Public Health|language=en|date=14 July 2023|first1=Jillian|last1=McKoy}}</ref> Most excess deaths in the United States can largely be attributed to increasing [[obesity]], [[alcoholism]], [[drug overdose]]s, [[car accidents]], [[suicide]]s, and [[murder]]s, with [[Insomnia|poor sleep]], [[unhealthy diet]]s, and [[loneliness]] being linked to most of them.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Berg S|date=2023-03-10|title=What doctors wish patients knew about falling U.S. life expectancy|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/what-doctors-wish-patients-knew-about-falling-us-life-expectancy|access-date=2024-06-03|publisher=American Medical Association|language=en}}</ref>

[[Black Americans]] have generally shorter life expectancies than their [[White American]] counterparts. For example, white Americans in 2010 are expected to live until age 78.9, but black Americans only until age 75.1. This 3.8-year gap, however, is the lowest it has been since 1975 at the latest, the greatest difference being 7.1 years in 1993.<ref name="Final 2010 data">{{cite journal|vauthors=Murphy SL, Xu JQ, Kochanek KD, Curtin SC, Arias E|title=Deaths: Final Data for 2010|journal=National Vital Statistics Reports|volume=61|issue=4|location=Hyattsville, MD|publisher=National Center for Health Statistics=|date=2013|pages=1–117|pmid=24979972|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_04.pdf}}</ref> In contrast, [[Asian American]] women live the longest of all ethnic and gender groups in the United States, with a life expectancy of 85.8 years.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Minority Health|url=http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlID=53|title=Asian American/Pacific Islander Profile|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204024943/http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlid=53|archive-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> The life expectancy of [[Hispanic Americans]] is 81.2 years.<ref name="Final 2010 data" />

==== Japan ====
In 2023, the life expectancy was 84.5 in Japan, 4.2 years above the [[OECD]] average, and one of the highest in the world. Japan's high life expectancy can largely be explained by their healthy diets, which are low on [[salt]], [[fat]], and red meat. For these reasons, Japan has a low [[obesity]] rate, and ultimately low mortality from [[heart disease]] and [[cancer]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tsugane S|title=Why has Japan become the world's most long-lived country: insights from a food and nutrition perspective|journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=75|issue=6|pages=921–928|date=June 2021|pmid=32661353|pmc=8189904|doi=10.1038/s41430-020-0677-5}}</ref>

==== In cities ====
Cities also experience a wide range of life expectancy based on neighborhood breakdowns. This is largely due to economic clustering and poverty conditions that tend to associate based on geographic location. Multi-generational poverty found in struggling neighborhoods also contributes. In American cities such as [[Cincinnati]], the life expectancy gap between low income and high-income neighborhoods touches 20 years.<ref name="waterfields">{{cite web|url=http://waterfieldsllc.com/about-waterfields/social-mission/root-causes-poverty/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906041120/http://waterfieldsllc.com/about-waterfields/social-mission/root-causes-poverty/|archive-date=6 September 2015|title=The Root Causes of Poverty|publisher=Waterfields, LLC|location=Cincinnati, Ohio|access-date=2015-03-04}}</ref>

===Economic circumstances===
{{See also|Preston curve}}
[[File:Life expectancy vs healthcare spending.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Life expectancy vs healthcare spending of rich OECD countries. [[List of countries by total health expenditure per capita|US average of $10,447 in 2018]].<ref name=life>{{cite journal|url=https://ourworldindata.org/the-link-between-life-expectancy-and-health-spending-us-focus|title=Link between health spending and life expectancy: US is an outlier|date=26 May 2017|vauthors=Roser M|author-link1=Max Roser|journal=[[Our World in Data]]}} Click the sources tab under the chart for info on the countries, healthcare expenditures, and data sources. See the later version of the chart [https://ourworldindata.org/us-life-expectancy-low here].</ref>]]
Economic circumstances also affect life expectancy. For example, in the United Kingdom, life expectancy in the wealthiest and richest areas is several years higher than in the poorest areas. This may reflect factors such as diet and lifestyle, as well as access to medical care. It may also reflect a selective effect: people with chronic life-threatening illnesses are less likely to become wealthy or to reside in affluent areas.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Department of Health|location=UK|url=http://www.dh.gov.uk/PublicationsAndStatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidanceArticle/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4117696&chk=OXFbWI|title=Tackling health inequalities: Status report on the Programme for Action|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205110912/http://www.dh.gov.uk/PublicationsAndStatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidanceArticle/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4117696&chk=OXFbWI|archive-date=5 February 2007}}</ref> In [[Glasgow]], the disparity is [[Glasgow effect|amongst the highest in the world]]: life expectancy for males in the heavily deprived [[Calton, Glasgow|Calton]] area stands at 54, which is 28 years less than in the affluent area of [[Lenzie]], which is only {{Convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} away.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7584056.stm#Life%20expectancy|title=Social factors key to ill health|date=28 August 2008|publisher=BBC News|access-date=28 August 2008}}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/glasgow_and_west/7584450.stm|title=GP explains life expectancy gap|date=28 August 2008|publisher=BBC News|access-date=28 August 2008}}</ref>

A study published in the [[American Geriatrics Society]] found that the average life expectancy of the Chinese emperors (which have much wealth) from the first Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC) to the last Qing Dynasty, was 41.3 years. This is much lower than that of the Buddhist monks (66.9 years) traditional Chinese doctors (75.1 years) and the emperors' servant, who survived to 71.3 years (range 55–94), during the same time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Hai-Lu |last2=Zhu |first2=Xun |last3=Sui |first3=Yi |title=THE SHORT-LIVED CHINESE EMPERORS |journal=Geriatrics Healthcare Professionals |date=2 August 2006 |volume=54 |issue=8 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2006.00821.x |url=https://agsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2006.00821.x |access-date=12 May 2025}}</ref>

A 2013 study found a pronounced relationship between [[economic inequality]] and life expectancy.<ref name=WaPoLifespan>{{cite news|vauthors=Fletcher MA|title=Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/research-ties-economic-inequality-to-gap-in-life-expectancy/2013/03/10/c7a323c4-7094-11e2-8b8d-e0b59a1b8e2a_story.html|access-date=23 March 2013|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=10 March 2013}}</ref> However, in contrast, a study by José A. Tapia Granados and [[Ana Diez-Roux|Ana Diez Roux]] at the [[University of Michigan]] found that life expectancy actually ''increased'' during the [[Great Depression]], and during recessions and depressions in general.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=University of Michigan|work=ScienceDaily|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090928172530.htm|title=Did The Great Depression Have A Silver Lining? Life Expectancy Increased By 6.2 Years|date=29 September 2009|access-date=3 April 2011}}</ref> The authors suggest that when people are working at a more extreme degree during prosperous economic times, they undergo more [[stress (biology)|stress]], exposure to [[pollution]], and the likelihood of injury among other longevity-limiting factors.

Life expectancy is also likely to be affected by exposure to high levels of [[roadway air dispersion model|highway air pollution]] or industrial [[air pollution]]. This is one way that occupation can have a major effect on life expectancy. Coal miners (and in prior generations, asbestos cutters) often have lower life expectancies than average. Other factors affecting an individual's life expectancy are genetic disorders, drug use, [[tobacco smoking]], excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, access to health care, diet, and exercise.

===Sex differences===
[[File:Healthy life expectancy bar chart -world -sex.png|thumb|300px|Life expectancy and healthy life expectancy by sex in 2019<ref name="who_2019" />]]
[[File:LifeExpectancyBetweenFemaleAndMales.jpg|thumb|Pink: Countries where female life expectancy at birth is higher than males. Blue: A few countries in southern Africa where females have shorter lives due to [[AIDS]]. (2015)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://smart-unit-converter.com/life-expectancy.php|title=How long will I live? Estimate remaining life expectancy for all countries in the world|vauthors=Pele L}}</ref>]]
[[File:Comparison of male and female life expectancy -world.svg|thumb|right|300px|''"Gender Die Gap"'': global female life expectancy gap at birth for countries and territories as defined by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] for 2019. Open the original [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Comparison_of_male_and_female_life_expectancy_-world.svg svg-file] and hover over a bubble to show its data. The square of the bubbles is proportional to country population based on estimation of the [[UN]].]]
In the present, female human life expectancy is greater than that of males, despite females having higher morbidity rates (see [[health survival paradox]]). There are many potential reasons for this. Traditional arguments tend to favor sociology-environmental factors: historically, men have generally consumed more [[tobacco]], [[Alcoholic drink|alcohol]], and [[drug]]s than women in most societies, and are more likely to die from many associated diseases such as [[lung cancer]], [[tuberculosis]], and [[cirrhosis of the liver]].<ref name=worldhealth/> Men are also more likely to die from injuries, whether unintentional (such as [[Occupational safety and health|occupational]], [[war]], or [[car wrecks]]) or intentional ([[suicide]]).<ref name=worldhealth>{{cite web|publisher=World Health Organization|year=2004|work=The world health report 2004 – changing history|title=Annex Table 2: Deaths by cause, sex and mortality stratum in WHO regions, estimates for 2002|url=https://www.who.int/entity/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf|access-date=1 November 2008}}</ref> Men are also more likely to die from most of the leading causes of death (some already stated above) than women. Some of these in the United States include cancer of the respiratory system, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema, prostate cancer, and coronary heart disease.<ref name="Santrock"/> These far outweigh the female mortality rate from breast cancer and cervical cancer. In the past, [[maternal death|mortality rates for females in child-bearing age groups]] were higher than for males at the same age.

A paper from 2015 found that female foetuses have a higher mortality rate than male foetuses.<ref name="pmid25825766">{{cite journal|vauthors=Orzack SH, Stubblefield JW, Akmaev VR, Colls P, Munné S, Scholl T, Steinsaltz D, Zuckerman JE|title=The human sex ratio from conception to birth|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=112|issue=16|pages=E2102–11|date=April 2015|pmid=25825766|pmc=4413259|doi=10.1073/pnas.1416546112|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015PNAS..112E2102O}}</ref> This finding contradicts papers dating from 2002 and earlier that attribute the male sex to higher in-utero mortality rates.<ref name = "Kalben_2000">{{cite journal|vauthors=Kalben BB|title=Why men die younger: causes of mortality differences by sex.|journal=North American Actuarial Journal|date=October 2000|volume=4|issue=4|pages=83–111|doi=10.1080/10920277.2000.10595939|url=http://www.soa.org/library/monographs/life/why-men-die-younger-causes-of-mortality-differences-by-sex/2001/january/m-li01-1-05.pdf|access-date=31 October 2011|archive-date=13 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135329/http://www.soa.org/library/monographs/life/why-men-die-younger-causes-of-mortality-differences-by-sex/2001/january/m-li01-1-05.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Naeye RL, Burt LS, Wright DL, Blanc WA, Tatter D|title=Neonatal mortality, the male disadvantage|journal=Pediatrics|volume=48|issue=6|pages=902–906|date=December 1971|pmid=5129451|doi=10.1542/peds.48.6.902}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Waldron I|title=Sex differences in human mortality: the role of genetic factors|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=17|issue=6|pages=321–333|date=1983-01-01|pmid=6344225|doi=10.1016/0277-9536(83)90234-4|author-link1=Ingrid Waldron}}</ref> Among the smallest premature babies (those under {{Convert|2|lb|g|abbr=none}}), females have a higher survival rate. At the other extreme, about 90% of individuals aged 110 are female. The difference in life expectancy between men and women in the United States dropped from 7.8&nbsp;years in 1979 to 5.3&nbsp;years in 2005, with women expected to live to age&nbsp;80.1 in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Hitti M|title=U.S. Life Expectancy Best Ever, Says CDC|work=eMedicine|publisher=[[WebMD]]|date=28 February 2005|url=http://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/news/20050228/us-life-expectancy-best-ever-says-cdc|access-date=18 January 2011}}</ref> Data from the United Kingdom shows the gap in life expectancy between men and women decreasing in later life. This may be attributable to the effects of infant mortality and young adult death rates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life expectancy—care quality indicators|url=http://www.qualitywatch.org.uk/indicator/life-expectancy#vis-ref_221|website=QualityWatch|publisher=Nuffield Trust & Health Foundation|access-date=16 April 2015}}</ref>

Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger-sized individuals within a species tend, on average, to have shorter lives.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Stindl R|url=http://jerrymondo.tripod.com/lgev/id1.html|title=Telemores, sexual size dimorphism and gender gap in life expectancy|publisher=Jerrymondo.tripod.com|access-date=4 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Samaras TT, Heigh GH|title=How human size affects longevity and mortality from degenerative diseases|journal=Townsend Letter for Doctors & Patients|volume=159|issue=78–85|pages=133–139}}</ref> This biological difference{{clarify|date=September 2022}} occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases.<ref name="Santrock"/>

In her extensive review of the existing literature, Kalben concluded that the fact that women live longer than men was observed at least as far back as 1750 and that, with relatively equal treatment, today males in all parts of the world experience greater mortality than females. However, Kalben's study was restricted to data in Western Europe alone, where the demographic transition occurred relatively early. United Nations statistics from mid-twentieth century onward, show that in all parts of the world, females have a higher life expectancy at age 60 than males.<ref>{{cite web|work=Department of Economic and Social Affairs|page=53|title=World Population Ageing 2015 (ST/ESA/SER.A/390)|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/ageing/WPA2015_Report.pdf|publisher=United Nations|access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref> Of 72 selected causes of death, only 6 yielded greater female than male age-adjusted death rates in 1998 in the United States. Except for birds, for almost all of the animal species studied, males have higher mortality than females. Evidence suggests that the sex mortality differential in people is due to both biological/genetic and environmental/behavioral risk and protective factors.<ref name = "Kalben_2000" />

One recent suggestion is that [[mitochondria]]l mutations which shorten lifespan continue to be expressed in males (but less so in females) because mitochondria are inherited only through the mother. By contrast, [[natural selection]] weeds out mitochondria that reduce female survival; therefore, such mitochondria are less likely to be passed on to the next generation. This thus suggests that females tend to live longer than males. The authors claim that this is a partial explanation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-19093442|title=Fruit flies offer DNA clue to why women live longer|publisher=BBC News|date=2 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Myers PZ|author-link1=PZ Myers|date=6 February 2013|url=http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2013/02/06/mothers-curse/|title=Mother's Curse}}</ref>

Another explanation is the [[unguarded X hypothesis]]. According to this hypothesis, one reason for why the average lifespan of males is not as long as that of females––by 18% on average, according to the study––is that they have a [[Y chromosome]] which cannot protect an individual from harmful genes expressed on the X chromosome, while a duplicate X chromosome, as present in female organisms, can ensure harmful genes are not [[gene expression|expressed]].<ref>{{cite news|vauthors=Gilbert L|date=4 March 2020|title=Why men (and other male animals) die younger: It's all in the Y chromosome|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-03-men-male-animals-die-younger.html|access-date=5 April 2020|work=phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Xirocostas ZA, Everingham SE, Moles AT|title=The sex with the reduced sex chromosome dies earlier: a comparison across the tree of life|journal=Biology Letters|volume=16|issue=3|pages=20190867|date=March 2020|pmid=32126186|pmc=7115182|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2019.0867|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In developed countries, starting around 1880, death rates decreased faster among women, leading to differences in mortality rates between males and females. Before 1880, death rates were the same. In people born after 1900, the death rate of 50- to 70-year-old men was double that of women of the same age. Men may be more vulnerable to cardiovascular disease than women, but this susceptibility was evident only after deaths from other causes, such as infections, started to decline.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Rettner R|title=When Did Women Start to Outlive Men?|website=[[Live Science]]|date=6 July 2015|url=http://www.livescience.com/51455-women-outlive-men.html|access-date=2015-07-08}}</ref> Most of the difference in life expectancy between the sexes is accounted for by differences in the rate of death by cardiovascular diseases among persons aged 50–70.<ref name="pmid26150507">{{cite journal|vauthors=Beltrán-Sánchez H, Finch CE, Crimmins EM|title=Twentieth century surge of excess adult male mortality|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=112|issue=29|pages=8993–8|date=July 2015|pmid=26150507|pmc=4517277|doi=10.1073/pnas.1421942112|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.8993B}}</ref>

===Genetics===
{{Further|Genetics of aging}}
The [[heritability]] of lifespan is estimated to be less than 10%, meaning the majority of [[Coefficient of variation|variation]] in lifespan is attributable due to differences in environment rather than [[genetic variation]].<ref name="lifespan_heritability">{{cite journal|vauthors=Ruby JG, Wright KM, Rand KA, Kermany A, Noto K, Curtis D, Varner N, Garrigan D, Slinkov D, Dorfman I, Granka JM, Byrnes J, Myres N, Ball C|title=Estimates of the Heritability of Human Longevity Are Substantially Inflated due to Assortative Mating|journal=Genetics|volume=210|issue=3|pages=1109–1124|date=November 2018|pmid=30401766|pmc=6218226|doi=10.1534/genetics.118.301613}}</ref> However, researchers have identified regions of the [[genome]] which can influence the length of life and the number of years lived in good health. For example, a [[genome-wide association study]] of 1 million lifespans found 12 [[genetic loci]] which influenced lifespan by modifying susceptibility to [[Cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular]] and [[Smoking#Health effects|smoking-related disease]].<ref name="timmers_elife">{{cite journal|vauthors=Timmers PR, Mounier N, Lall K, Fischer K, Ning Z, Feng X, Bretherick AD, Clark DW, Shen X, Esko T, Kutalik Z, Wilson JF, Joshi PK|title=Genomics of 1 million parent lifespans implicates novel pathways and common diseases and distinguishes survival chances|journal=eLife|volume=8|issue=e39856|date=January 2019|pmid=30642433|pmc=6333444|doi=10.7554/eLife.39856|doi-access=free}}</ref> The locus with the largest effect is [[Apolipoprotein E|APOE]]. Carriers of the APOE ε4 [[allele]] live approximately one year less than average (per copy of the ε4 allele), mainly due to increased risk of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="timmers_elife" />

[[File:Healthspan, parental lifespan, and longevity are highly genetically correlated.webp|thumb|right|500px|"Healthspan, parental lifespan, and longevity are highly genetically correlated."<ref name="Multivariate"/>]]

In July 2020, scientists identified 10 genomic loci with consistent effects across multiple lifespan-related traits, including [[healthspan]], lifespan, and [[longevity]].<ref name="Multivariate">{{cite journal|vauthors=Timmers PR, Wilson JF, Joshi PK, Deelen J|title=Multivariate genomic scan implicates novel loci and haem metabolism in human ageing|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|pages=3570|date=July 2020|pmid=32678081|pmc=7366647|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17312-3|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3570T|doi-access=free}}</ref> The genes affected by variation in these loci highlighted [[Human iron metabolism|haem metabolism]] as a promising candidate for further research within the field. This study suggests that high levels of iron in the blood likely reduce, and genes involved in metabolising iron likely increase healthy years of life in humans.<ref name="ironmeta">{{cite news|author=University of Edinburgh|date=20 July 2020|title=Blood iron levels could be key to slowing ageing, gene study shows|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-blood-iron-key-ageing-gene.html|access-date=18 August 2020|work=phys.org}}</ref>

A follow-up study which investigated the genetics of [[Frailty syndrome|frailty]] and self-rated health in addition to healthspan, lifespan, and longevity also highlighted haem metabolism as an important pathway, and found genetic variants which lower blood protein levels of [[Lipoprotein(a)|LPA]] and [[VCAM1]] were associated with increased healthy lifespan.<ref name="timmers_nataging">{{cite journal|vauthors=Timmers PR, Tiys ES, Sakaue S, Akiyama M, Kiiskinen TT, Zhou W, Hwang SJ, Yao C, Deelen J, Levy D, Ganna A, Kamatani Y, Okada Y, Joshi PK, Wilson JF, Tsepilov YA|title=Mendelian randomization of genetically independent aging phenotypes identifies LPA and VCAM1 as biological targets for human aging|journal=Nature Aging|volume=2|issue=1|pages=19–30|date=January 2022|pmid=37118362|doi=10.1038/s43587-021-00159-8|hdl-access=free|s2cid=246093885|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/1bac547c-2eb9-47e1-b4b8-e80d741941c7}}</ref>

===Centenarians===
{{Main|Centenarian}}
In developed countries, the number of centenarians is increasing at approximately 5.5% per year, which means doubling the centenarian population every 13&nbsp;years, pushing it from some 455,000 in 2009 to 4.1&nbsp;million in 2050.<ref>United Nations [https://healthprep.com/aging/#WPA2009-report.pdf "World Population Ageing 2009"]; ST/ESA/SER.A/295, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York, October 2010, liv + 73 pp.</ref> Japan is the country with the highest ratio of centenarians (347 for every 1&nbsp;million inhabitants in September 2010). [[Shimane Prefecture]] had an estimated 743 centenarians per million inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|work=The Japan Times|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100915a8.html|title=Centenarians to Hit Record 44,000|date=15 September 2010}} [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] 667 centenarians per 1 million inhabitants in September 2010, had been for a long time the Japanese prefecture with the largest ratio of centenarians, partly because it also had the largest loss of young and middle-aged population during the [[Pacific War]].</ref>

In the United States, the number of centenarians grew from 32,194 in 1980 to 71,944 in November 2010 (232 centenarians per million inhabitants).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/2009-nat-res.html|title=Resident Population. National Population Estimates for the 2000s. Monthly Postcensal Resident Population, by single year of age, sex, race, and Hispanic Origin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010072957/http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/2009-nat-res.html|archive-date=10 October 2013|work=Bureau of the Census}} Different figures, based on earlier assumptions (104,754 centenarians on Nov.1, 2009) are provided in {{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb10-ff06.pdf|title=Older Americans Month|date=May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216221613/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb10-ff06.pdf|archive-date=16 February 2016|publisher=Bureau of the Census|work=Facts for Features|page=5}}</ref>

===Mental illness===
Mental illness is reported to occur in approximately 18% of the average American population.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Bekiempis V|url=http://www.newsweek.com/nearly-1-5-americans-suffer-mental-illness-each-year-230608|title=Nearly 1 in 5 Americans Suffers From Mental Illness Each Year|website=[[Newsweek]]|date=28 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Steel Z, Marnane C, Iranpour C, Chey T, Jackson JW, Patel V, Silove D|title=The global prevalence of common mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis 1980–2013|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=43|issue=2|pages=476–493|date=April 2014|pmid=24648481|pmc=3997379|doi=10.1093/ije/dyu038}}</ref>

[[File: Smi graph by Mark.png|thumb|Life expectancy in the seriously mentally ill is much shorter than the general population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Morbidity and Mortality in People With Serious Mental Illness|year=2006|publisher=National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors|url=https://www.nasmhpd.org/sites/default/files/Mortality%20and%20Morbidity%20Final%20Report%208.18.08.pdf}}</ref>]]

The mentally ill have been shown to have a 10- to 25-year reduction in life expectancy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://mobile.nytimes.com/2018/05/30/upshot/mental-illness-health-disparity-longevity.html|title=The Largest Health Disparity We Don't Talk About|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2018-05-30|vauthors=Khullar D}}</ref> Generally, the reduction of lifespan in the mentally ill population compared to the mentally stable population has been studied and documented.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Wahlbeck K, Westman J, Nordentoft M, Gissler M, Laursen TM|title=Outcomes of Nordic mental health systems: life expectancy of patients with mental disorders|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|volume=199|issue=6|pages=453–458|date=December 2011|pmid=21593516|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.110.085100|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Reininghaus U, Dutta R, Dazzan P, Doody GA, Fearon P, Lappin J, Heslin M, Onyejiaka A, Donoghue K, Lomas B, Kirkbride JB, Murray RM, Croudace T, Morgan C, Jones PB|title=Mortality in schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 10-year follow-up of the ӔSOP first-episode cohort|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=41|issue=3|pages=664–673|date=May 2015|pmid=25262443|pmc=4393685|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbu138}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Laursen TM, Munk-Olsen T, Vestergaard M|title=Life expectancy and cardiovascular mortality in persons with schizophrenia|journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry|volume=25|issue=2|pages=83–88|date=March 2012|pmid=22249081|doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e32835035ca|s2cid=13646442}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/861159|title=Antipsychotics Linked to Mortality in Parkinson's|website=Medscape|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rosenbaum L|title=Closing the Mortality Gap – Mental Illness and Medical Care|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=375|issue=16|pages=1585–1589|date=October 2016|pmid=27797313|doi=10.1056/NEJMms1610125}}</ref>

The greater mortality of people with mental disorders may be due to death from injury, from [[co-morbid]] conditions, or medication side effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/inquest-told-there-was-a-lost-opportunity-to-treat-mental-health-patient-who-died-following-severe-constipation-1-5244246|title=Inquest told there was a "lost opportunity" to treat mental health patient who died following severe constipation|access-date=25 July 2017|archive-date=9 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409015423/https://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/inquest-told-there-was-a-lost-opportunity-to-treat-mental-health-patient-who-died-following-severe-constipation-1-5244246|url-status=dead}}</ref> For instance, psychiatric medications can increase the risk of developing [[Olanzapine#Metabolic effects|diabetes]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kumar PN, Thomas B|title=Hyperglycemia associated with olanzapine treatment|journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry|volume=53|issue=2|pages=176–177|date=April 2011|pmid=21772658|pmc=3136028|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.82562|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/business/06zyprexa.html|title=Lilly Adds Strong Warning Label to Zyprexa, a Schizophrenia Drug|date=6 October 2007|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0RDZdDW0EqEC&q=zyprexa%20increase%20the%20chance%20of%20developing%20the%20disease%20of%20diabetes&pg=PA17|title=Type 2 Diabetes, Pre-Diabetes, and the Metabolic Syndrome|vauthors=Codario RA|date=28 October 2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59259-932-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/863871|title=Antipsychotic-Related Metabolic Testing Falls Far Short|publisher=MedScape|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref> It has been shown that the psychiatric medication [[olanzapine]] can increase risk of developing [[agranulocytosis]], among other comorbidities.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Alvir JM, Lieberman JA, Safferman AZ, Schwimmer JL, Schaaf JA|title=Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis. Incidence and risk factors in the United States|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=329|issue=3|pages=162–167|date=July 1993|pmid=8515788|doi=10.1056/NEJM199307153290303|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/020592s057,021086s036,021253s045lbl.pdf|title=Zyprexa Prescribing Information|date=2010|website=U.S. Food Drug and Administration}}{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Psychiatric medicines also affect the [[gastrointestinal tract]]; the mentally ill have a four times risk of gastrointestinal disease.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Philpott HL, Nandurkar S, Lubel J, Gibson PR|title=Drug-induced gastrointestinal disorders|journal=Frontline Gastroenterology|volume=5|issue=1|pages=49–57|date=January 2014|pmid=28839751|pmc=5369702|doi=10.1136/flgastro-2013-100316}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rege S, Lafferty T|title=Life-threatening constipation associated with clozapine|journal=Australasian Psychiatry|volume=16|issue=3|pages=216–219|date=June 2008|pmid=18568631|doi=10.1080/10398560701882203|s2cid=32093594}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hibbard KR, Propst A, Frank DE, Wyse J|title=Fatalities associated with clozapine-related constipation and bowel obstruction: a literature review and two case reports|journal=Psychosomatics|volume=50|issue=4|pages=416–419|year=2009|pmid=19687183|doi=10.1176/appi.psy.50.4.416|doi-access=free}}</ref>

As of 2020 and the [[COVID-19]] pandemic, researchers have found an increased risk of death in the mentally ill.<ref name="pmid33502436">{{cite journal|vauthors=Nemani K, Li C, Olfson M, Blessing EM, Razavian N, Chen J, Petkova E, Goff DC|title=Association of Psychiatric Disorders With Mortality Among Patients With COVID-19|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=78|issue=4|pages=380–386|date=April 2021|pmid=33502436|pmc=7841576|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4442}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Wang Q, Xu R, Volkow ND|title=Increased risk of COVID-19 infection and mortality in people with mental disorders: analysis from electronic health records in the United States|journal=World Psychiatry|volume=20|issue=1|pages=124–130|date=February 2021|pmid=33026219|pmc=7675495|doi=10.1002/wps.20806}}</ref><ref name="pmid32997123">{{cite journal|vauthors=Li L, Li F, Fortunati F, Krystal JH|title=Association of a Prior Psychiatric Diagnosis With Mortality Among Hospitalized Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Infection|journal=JAMA Network Open|volume=3|issue=9|pages=e2023282|date=September 2020|pmid=32997123|pmc=7527869|doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.23282}}</ref>

===Other illnesses===
The life expectancy of people with diabetes, which is 9.3% of the U.S. population, is reduced by roughly 10–20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diabetes.co.uk/diabetes-life-expectancy.html|title=Diabetes Life Expectancy – Type 1 and Type 2 Life Expectancy|date=15 January 2019}}</ref><ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/features/diabetesfactsheet/ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]</ref> People over 60 years old with [[Alzheimer's disease]] have about a 50% life expectancy of 3–10 years.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Zanetti O, Solerte SB, Cantoni F|title=Life expectancy in Alzheimer's disease (AD)|journal=Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics|volume=49|issue=Suppl 1|pages=237–243|date=2009|pmid=19836639|doi=10.1016/j.archger.2009.09.035}}</ref> Other demographics that tend to have a lower life expectancy than average include transplant recipients<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kiberd BA, Keough-Ryan T, Clase CM|title=Screening for prostate, breast and colorectal cancer in renal transplant recipients|journal=American Journal of Transplantation|volume=3|issue=5|pages=619–625|date=May 2003|pmid=12752319|doi=10.1034/j.1600-6143.2003.00118.x|s2cid=20247054|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the obese.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Diehr P, O'Meara ES, Fitzpatrick A, Newman AB, Kuller L, Burke G|title=Weight, mortality, years of healthy life, and active life expectancy in older adults|journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society|volume=56|issue=1|pages=76–83|date=January 2008|pmid=18031486|pmc=3865852|doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01500.x|author-link=Paula Diehr}}</ref>

=== Education ===
Education on all levels has been shown to be strongly associated with increased life expectancy.<ref name="Hummer_2013">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hummer RA, Hernandez EM|title=The Effect of Educational Attainment on Adult Mortality in the United States|journal=Population Bulletin|volume=68|issue=1|pages=1–16|date=June 2013|pmid=25995521|pmc=4435622}}</ref> This association may be due partly to higher income,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2018/data-on-display/education-pays.htm|title=Measuring the value of education : Career Outlook: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|vauthors=Torpey E|website=bls.gov|access-date=2019-03-10}}</ref> which can lead to increased life expectancy. Despite the association, among identical twin pairs with different education levels, there is only weak evidence of a relationship between educational attainment and adult mortality.<ref name="Hummer_2013" />

According to a paper from 2015, the mortality rate for the Caucasian population in the United States from 1993 to 2001 is four times higher{{dubious|date=September 2022}} for those who did not complete high school compared to those who have at least 16 years of education.<ref name="Hummer_2013" /> In fact, within the U.S. adult population, people with less than a high school education have the shortest life expectancies.

Preschool education also plays a large role in life expectancy. It was found that high-quality early-stage childhood education had positive effects on health. Researchers discovered this by analyzing the results of the [[Abecedarian Early Intervention Project|Carolina Abecedarian Project]], finding that the disadvantaged children who were randomly assigned to treatment had lower instances of risk factors for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases in their mid-30s.<ref name="pmid24675955">{{cite journal|vauthors=Campbell F, Conti G, Heckman JJ, Moon SH, Pinto R, Pungello E, Pan Y|title=Early childhood investments substantially boost adult health|journal=Science|location=New York, N.Y.|volume=343|issue=6178|pages=1478–85|date=March 2014|pmid=24675955|pmc=4028126|doi=10.1126/science.1248429|bibcode=2014Sci...343.1478C}}</ref>

=== Vaccination ===
In June 2024, Italian researchers showed that the Covid-19 mRNA vaccination raised all-cause [[mortality]] risks and caused a statistically significant loss of life expectancy. The retrospective cohort study found that the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) in terms of all-cause deaths between those who got two doses of the mRNA vaccine and the unvaccinated group was 1.98, and the restricted mean survival time (RMST) difference was -2.71. The study showed that the restricted mean time lost (RMTL) ratio between the two-dose group and the unvaccinated was 1.37, suggesting that those who received two doses of the shots could lose 37 percent of their life expectancy.<ref>
{{cite journal 
| title = A Critical Analysis of All-Cause Deaths during COVID-19 Vaccination in an Italian Province
| journal = Microorganisms 
| date = 2024
| doi = 10.3390/microorganisms12071343
| vauthors = ((Alessandria, M., et. al.)) 
| volume = 12 
| issue = 7 
| page = 1343 
| doi-access = free 
| pmid = 39065111 
| pmc = 11278956 
}}
</ref>