Editing Looting (section)

== History ==

=== <span id="War looting"></span><!-- [[War looting]] redirects here-->In armed conflict ===
[[File:Plundering van Mechelen door Spaanse Troepen 1572 Frans Hogenberg.jpg|thumb| The [[Spanish Fury at Mechelen|sacking and looting of Mechelen by Spanish troops]] led by the [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba|Duke of Alba]], 2 October 1572]]

Looting by a victorious army during war has been a common practice throughout recorded history.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sandholtz|first=Wayne|date=2008|title=Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066107087766|journal=European Journal of International Relations|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=101–131|doi=10.1177/1354066107087766|s2cid=143721778|issn=1354-0661|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Foot soldiers viewed plunder as a way to supplement an often-meagre income<ref name=hsc>Hsi-sheng Chi (1976), ''Warlord Politics in China, 1916–1928'', Stanford University Press, {{ISBN|0804708940}}, str. 93{{clarify inline|reason="str." is not a common English abbreviation|date=April 2015}}</ref> and transferred wealth became part of the celebration of victory. In the wake of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and particularly after [[World War II]], norms against wartime plunder became widely accepted.<ref name=":0" />

In the upper ranks, the proud exhibition of the loot plundered formed an integral part of the typical [[Roman triumph]], and [[Genghis Khan]] was not unusual in proclaiming that the greatest happiness was "to vanquish your enemies&nbsp;... to rob them of their wealth".<ref>Henry Hoyle Howorth (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=e4PErdXlLhwC&pg=PA110 ''History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century'']. Part 1: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmyks. Cosimo.</ref>

In ancient times, looting was sometimes prohibited due to religious concerns. For example, [[King Clovis I]] of the Franks, forbade his soldiers to loot when they campaigned near [[Martin of Tours|St Martin]]'s shrine in Tours, for fear of offending the saint.<ref>Gregory of Tours. ''A History of the Franks''. Pantianos classics, 1916</ref>

In warfare in ancient times, the spoils of war included the defeated populations, which were often [[Slavery|enslaved]]. Women and children might become absorbed into the victorious country's population, as [[concubine]]s, [[eunuch]]s and slaves.<ref>John K. Thorton (1996). "African Background in American Colonization". In Stanley L. Engerman, Robert E. Gallman (ed.), ''The Cambridge Economic History of the United States'', Cambridge University Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0521394422}}, p. 87. "African states waged war to acquire slaves&nbsp;... raids that appear to have been more concerned with obtaining loot (including slaves) than other objectives."</ref><ref>[[John Bagot Glubb]], ''The Empire of the Arabs'', Hodder and Stoughton, 1963, p. 283. "...&nbsp;thousand Christian captives formed part of the loot and were subsequently sold as slaves in the markets of Syria".</ref> In other pre-modern societies, objects made of precious metals were the preferred target of war looting, largely because of their ease of portability. In many cases, looting offered an opportunity to obtain [[Looted art|treasures and works of art]] that otherwise would not have been obtainable. Beginning in the [[early modern period]] and reaching its peak in the [[New Imperialism]] era, [[History of colonialism|European colonial powers]] frequently looted areas they captured during military campaigns against non-European states.<ref>{{cite book|first=James|last=Cuno|authorlink=James Cuno|title=Whose Culture?: The Promise of Museums and the Debate over Antiquities|date=2002|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0691154435}}</ref> In the 1930s, and even more so during the [[World War II|Second World War]], [[Nazi Germany]] engaged in large-scale and organized [[Nazi plunder|looting of art and property]], particularly [[World War II looting of Poland|in Nazi-occupied Poland]].<ref>J. R. Kudelski (2004), {{lang|pl|Tajemnice nazistowskiej grabieży polskich zbiorów sztuki}}, Warsaw {{in lang|pl}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/2291481.stm | work= BBC News | title= Nazi loot claim 'compelling' | date= October 2, 2002 | access-date= May 11, 2010}}</ref> Soviet Union [[Soviet plunder|did likewise]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Akinsha |first=Konstantin |date=May 2010 |title=Stalin's Decrees and Soviet Trophy Brigades: Compensation, Restitution in Kind, or "Trophies" of War? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-cultural-property/article/abs/stalins-decrees-and-soviet-trophy-brigades-compensation-restitution-in-kind-or-trophies-of-war/B25E3F28D47558EE022591FFA0231EB5 |journal=International Journal of Cultural Property |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=195–216 |doi=10.1017/S0940739110000093 |issn=1465-7317}}</ref> On the smaller level, looting was done by other Allied forces too.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Givens |first=Seth A. |date=2014-01-01 |title=Liberating the Germans: The US Army and Looting in Germany during the Second World War |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0968344513504521 |journal=War in History |language=EN |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=33–54 |doi=10.1177/0968344513504521 |issn=0968-3445|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Looting, combined with poor [[Military justice|military discipline]], has occasionally been an army's downfall{{Citation needed|date= August 2018}} since troops who have dispersed to ransack an area may become vulnerable to counter-attack, a good example being during the 1967 [[First Invasion of Onitsha]], where the victorious [[Nigerian Army| Nigerian troops]] were encircled and annihilated while looting. In other cases, for example, the [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala]] in 1801 or 1802, loot has contributed to further victories for an army.<ref>Wayne H. Bowen (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=S6J2Q3TlJpMC&pg=PA73 ''The History of Saudi Arabia''], Greenwood, p. 73. {{ISBN|0313340129}}</ref> Not all looters in wartime are conquerors; the looting of [[Vistula Land]] by the retreating [[Imperial Russian Army]] in 1915<ref>{{in lang|pl}} Andrzej Garlicki (1986), {{lang|pl|Z dziejów Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej}}, {{lang|pl|italic=no|Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne}}, {{ISBN|8302022454}}, p. 147</ref> was among the factors sapping the loyalty of [[Poland in World War I|Poles to Russia]]. Local civilians can also take advantage of a breakdown of order to loot public and private property, as took place at the [[Iraq Museum]] in the course of the [[Iraq War]] in 2003.<ref>Myers, Steven Lee (February 23, 2009), [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/world/middleeast/24museum.html "Iraq Museum Reopens Six Years After Looting"], ''The New York Times''.</ref> [[Leo Tolstoy|Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy]]'s novel ''[[War and Peace]]'' describes widespread looting by [[Moscow]]'s citizens before [[Napoleon]]'s troops [[French invasion of Russia|entered the city]] in 1812, along with looting by [[Grande Armée|French troops]] elsewhere.

In 1990 and 1991, during the [[Gulf War]], [[Saddam Hussein]]'s soldiers caused significant damage to both Kuwaiti and Saudi infrastructure. They also stole from private companies and homes.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Kelly|first=Michael|date=1991-03-24|title=The Rape and Rescue of Kuwaiti City|magazine=The New Republic|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/76724/rape-rescue-kuwait-iraq-saddam-hussein|access-date=2020-06-10|issn=0028-6583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-09-02|title=Oil Fires in Iraq|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/88666/oil-fires-in-iraq|access-date=2020-06-10|website=NASA Earth Observatory|language=en}}</ref> In April 2003, looters broke into the National Museum of Iraq, and thousands of artefacts remain missing.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Barker|first=Craig|title=Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq's national museum|url=http://theconversation.com/fifteen-years-after-looting-thousands-of-artefacts-are-still-missing-from-iraqs-national-museum-93949|access-date=2020-07-13|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Samuel|first=Sigal|date=2018-03-19|title=It's Disturbingly Easy to Buy Iraq's Archeological Treasures|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/03/iraq-war-archeology-invasion/555200/|access-date=2020-07-13|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US}}</ref>

Syrian conservation sites and museums were [[list of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian Civil War|looted during the Syrian Civil War]], with items being sold on the international [[black market]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Swann|first=Steve|date=2019-05-02|title='Loot-to-order' antiquities sold on Facebook|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-47628369|access-date=2020-07-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Harkin|first=James|title=The Race to Save Syria's Archaeological Treasures|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/race-save-syrias-archaeological-treasures-180958097/|access-date=2020-07-10|magazine=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref> Reports from 2012 suggested that the antiquities were being traded for [[weapons]] by the various combatants.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Baker|first=Aryn|date=2012-09-12|title=Syria's Looted Past: How Ancient Artifacts Are Being Traded for Guns|language=en-US|magazine=Time|url=https://world.time.com/2012/09/12/syrias-looted-past-how-ancient-artifacts-are-being-traded-for-guns/ |access-date=2020-07-10|issn=0040-781X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Jaber|first1=Hala|last2=Arbuthnott|first2=George|title=Syrians loot Roman treasures to buy guns|newspaper=[[The Times]]|language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/syrians-loot-roman-treasures-to-buy-guns-q5z9fgzs9t0|access-date=2020-07-10|issn=0140-0460}}</ref>

==== Prohibition under international law ====
Both [[customary international law]] and international [[treaty|treaties]] prohibit pillage in [[war|armed conflict]].<ref name="ICRC" /> The [[Lieber Code]], the Brussels Declaration (1874), and the [[Laws of War on Land (Oxford 1880)|Oxford Manual]] have recognized the prohibition against pillage.<ref name="ICRC" /> The [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907]] ([[Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict|modified in 1954]]) obliges military forces not only to avoid the destruction of enemy property but also to provide for its protection.<ref name=hague>Barbara T. Hoffman (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yvXTcGC5CwQC&pg=PA57 ''Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice''], Cambridge University Press, p. 57. {{ISBN|0521857643}}</ref> Article 8 of the [[Statute of the International Criminal Court]] provides that in international warfare, "pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault", is a [[war crime]].<ref name="ICRC" /> In the aftermath of [[World War II]], a number of war criminals were prosecuted for pillage. The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia|International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (1993–2017) brought several prosecutions for pillage.<ref name="ICRC" />

The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] of 1949 explicitly prohibits the looting of civilian property during wartime.<ref name="ICRC" /><ref name=gen>E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller (1991), [https://books.google.com/books?id=5xVSkGtcT5YC&pg=PA154 ''The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents''], Cambridge University Press, p. 154. {{ISBN|0521463084}}</ref>

Theoretically, to prevent such looting, unclaimed property is moved to the custody of the [[Custodian of Enemy Property]], to be handled until returned to its owners.

==== Modern conflicts ====
[[File:Graffiti outside looted Aldi store on May 28, 2020 in Minneapolis (51237052782).jpg|thumb|[[Vandalism|Vandalized]] and looted [[Aldi]] store during the [[George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul|George Floyd protests in Minneapolis]], May 28, 2020]]
Despite international prohibitions against the practice of looting, the ease with which it can be done means that it remains relatively common, particularly during outbreaks of [[civil unrest]] during which rules of war may not yet apply. The [[2011 Egyptian Revolution]], for example, caused a significant increase in the looting of [[antiquities]] from archaeological sites in Egypt, as the government lost the ability to protect the sites.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Gannon |first=Megan |title='Space Archaeologists' Show Spike in Looting at Egypt's Ancient Sites |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/space-archaeologists-show-spike-in-looting-at-egypt-s-ancient-sites/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |magazine=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> Other acts of modern looting, such as the looting and destruction of artifacts from the [[Iraq Museum|National Museum of Iraq]] by [[Islamic State]] militants, can be used as an easy way to express contempt for the concept of rules of war altogether.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Cultural War': Iraq Mourns Relics Destroyed by ISIS |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/national-museum-iraq-director-discusses-isis-destruction-relics-n383706 |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=NBC News |date=29 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref>

In the case of a sudden change in a country or region's government, it can be difficult to determine what constitutes looting as opposed to a new government taking custody of the property in question. This can be especially difficult if the new government is only partially recognized at the time the property is moved, as was the case during the [[2021 Taliban offensive]], during which a number of artifacts and a large amount of property of former government officials who had fled the country fell into the hands of the [[Taliban]] before they were recognized as the legitimate government of [[Afghanistan]] by other countries. Further looting and burning of civilian homes and villages has been defended by the Taliban as within their right as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-07-07 |title=Taliban looted, torched Afghan homes after evicting residents – Human Rights Watch |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-looted-torched-afghan-homes-after-evicting-residents-human-rights-watch-2021-07-07/ |access-date=2022-09-20}}</ref>

Looting can also be common in cases where [[Civil disorder|civil unrest]] is contained largely within the borders of a country or during peacetime. Riots in the wake of the [[George Floyd protests|2020 George Floyd protests]] in numerous American cities led to increased amounts of looting, as looters took advantage of the delicate political situation and civil unrest surrounding the riots themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wagner |first=Dennis |date=2020-06-15 |title='Peaceful protests got hijacked': Some criminals used George Floyd protests as cover for looting, police say |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2020/06/15/criminals-used-george-floyd-protests-cover-looting-police-say/5324881002/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=USA Today |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tingston |first=Nhx |date=June 6, 2020 |title=Looter from BLM and George Floyd Protest Bragged About Theft on Facebook While Offering Stolen Goods for Sale |url=https://www.techtimes.com/articles/250229/20200610/looter-from-blm-and-george-floyd-protest-bragged-about-theft-on-facebook-while-offering-stolen-goods-for-sale.htm |access-date=March 5, 2024 |website=Techtimes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-01 |title=List: Austin businesses looted during protests |url=https://www.kvue.com/article/news/local/austin-protests-looting-george-floyd-mike-ramos/269-c532c593-a681-42db-8558-6b97a9e9f241 |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=KVUE |language=en-US}}</ref> Up to 175 [[Target Corporation|Target]] stores closed Nationwide during the disturbances.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Voytko |first=Lisette |date=2020-05-31 |title=Target Closes 175 Stores Nationwide In Wake Of George Floyd Protests, Looting |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lisettevoytko/2020/05/31/target-closes-175-stores-nationwide-in-wake-of-george-floyd-protests-looting/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-28 |title=VIDEO: People loot Minneapolis Target in wake of George Floyd protests |url=https://www.kron4.com/news/national/video-people-loot-minneapolis-target-in-wake-of-george-floyd-protests/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=KRON4 |language=en-US}}</ref>

During the ongoing [[Kashmir conflict]], looting of [[Kashmiris]] trapped between the [[India]]n and [[Pakistan]]i militarized zones is common and widespread.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-12 |title=Two arrested for beating, looting homeless man in Srinagar: Police |url=https://thekashmirwalla.com/two-arrested-for-beating-looting-homeless-man-in-srinagar-police/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912093349/https://thekashmirwalla.com/two-arrested-for-beating-looting-homeless-man-in-srinagar-police/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=September 12, 2022 |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=The Kashmir Walla |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2022, international observers accused [[Russia]] of engaging in large scale looting during the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], reporting the widespread looting of everything from food to industrial equipment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fylyppov |first1=Olexsandr |last2=Lister |first2=Tim |title=Russians plunder $5M farm vehicles from Ukraine – to find they've been remotely disabled |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/05/01/europe/russia-farm-vehicles-ukraine-disabled-melitopol-intl/index.html |access-date=21 June 2022 |work=CNN |date=May 2, 2022}}</ref> Despite the publication of numerous photos and videos by Ukrainian journalists and civilians, numerous Russian commanders have denied these claims. International observers have theorized that this looting is either the result of direct orders, despite to Russia's claims to the contrary, or due to Russian soldiers not being issued with adequate food and other resources by their commanders.<ref>{{cite web |title='Hungry' Russian Soldiers Loot Ukrainian Shops |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russian-soldiers-loot-ukraine/31732450.html |date=2 March 2022 |work=Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty |access-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> On 18 November 2022, the [[University of Miami]] estimated that Russian forces in Ukraine had destroyed, pillaged, and looted at least 40 museums in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://international-and-comparative-law-review.law.miami.edu/ukrainian-culture-at-risk-the-legalized-looting-of-ukrainian-territories-under-russian-control/ | title=Ukrainian Culture at Risk: The "Legalized" Looting of Ukrainian Territories Under Russian Control &#124; International and Comparative Law Review | date=18 November 2022 }}</ref>