Editing Medieval university (section)

== Establishment ==
[[File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg|thumb|left|Established by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] in 1224, the [[University of Naples Federico II]] is the world's oldest [[Public university|state-funded university]] in continuous operation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Fulvio|last=Delle Donne|title=Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva|publisher=Mario Adda Editore|year=2010|language=it|isbn=978-8880828419|pages=9–10}}</ref>]]

[[Hastings Rashdall]] set out the modern understanding<ref>{{cite book |last=Pryds |first=Darleen |editor-last=Courtenay |editor-first=William J. |editor2-last=Miethke |editor2-first=Jürgen |editor3-last=Priest |editor3-first=David B. |year=2000 |title=Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society |chapter=''Studia'' as Royal Offices: Mediterranean Universities of Medieval Europe |series=Education and Society in the Middle Ages and Renaissance |volume=10 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |page=83 |isbn=90-04-11351-7 |issn=0926-6070 |quote=In his magisterial work on European universities, Hastings Rashdall [considered that] the integrity of a university is preserved only when the institution evolved into an internally regulated corporation of scholars, be they students or masters.}}</ref> of the medieval origins of European universities, noting that the earliest universities emerged spontaneously as "a scholastic Guild, whether of Masters or Students... without any express authorization of King, Pope, Prince or Prelate".<ref>{{cite book |last=Rashdall |first=Hastings |author-link=Hastings Rashdall |title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages |volume=1 |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |pages=17–18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3oFKAAAAYAAJ |access-date=26 February 2012 |quote=The University was originally a scholastic Guild, whether of Masters or Students. Such Guilds sprang into existence, like other Guilds, without any express authorisation of King, Pope, Prince, or Prelate. They were spontaneous products of the instinct of association that swept over the towns of Europe in the course of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. |date=1895}}</ref>

Among the earliest universities of this type were the [[University of Bologna]] (1088), [[University of Paris]] (c. 1150), [[University of Oxford]] (1167), [[University of Modena and Reggio Emilia|University of Modena]] (1175), [[University of Palencia]] (1208), [[University of Cambridge]] (1209), [[University of Salamanca]] (1218), [[University of Montpellier]] (1220), [[University of Padua]] (1222), [[University of Naples]] (1224), [[University of Toulouse]] (1229), [[University of Orleans]] (1235), [[University of Siena]] (1240), [[University of Valladolid]] (1241) [[University of Northampton (13th century)|University of Northampton]] (1261), [[University of Coimbra]] (1288), [[University of Macerata]] (1290), [[University of Pisa]] (1343), [[Charles University in Prague]] (1348), [[Jagiellonian University]] (1364), [[University of Vienna]] (1365), [[University of Pécs]] (1367), [[Heidelberg University]], (1386) and the [[University of St Andrews]] (1413) begun as private corporations of teachers and their pupils.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/blog/10-oldest-universities-world|title=10 of the Oldest Universities in the World |date=2016-09-16 |work=Top Universities|access-date=2017-05-30|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211092625/https://www.topuniversities.com/blog/10-oldest-universities-world|archive-date=2017-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/italy/articles/the-12-oldest-universities-in-the-world/|title=The 13 Oldest Universities In The World|last=Seelinger|first=Lani|work=Culture Trip|access-date=2017-05-30|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001122048/https://theculturetrip.com/europe/italy/articles/the-12-oldest-universities-in-the-world/|archive-date=2017-10-01}}</ref>
[[Image:Meeting of doctors at the university of Paris.jpg|thumb|Illustration from a 16th-century manuscript showing a meeting of [[Doctor (title)|doctor]]s at the [[University of Paris]]]]

In many cases universities petitioned secular power for privileges and this became a model. The [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] in ''[[Authentica habita|Authentica Habita]]'' (1158) gave the first privileges to students in Bologna. Another step was [[Pope Alexander III]] in 1179 "forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for granting the license to teach (''licentia docendi''), and obliging them to give license to properly qualified teachers".<ref name="Gürüz">
Kemal Gürüz, [http://www.ionio.gr/microsites/css/2006/docs/2007/QAIntro.K.Guruz.2007.doc Quality Assurance in a Globalized Higher Education Environment: An Historical Perspective] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216111819/http://www.ionio.gr/microsites/css/2006/docs/2007/QAIntro.K.Guruz.2007.doc |date=2008-02-16}}, Istanbul, 2007, p. 5</ref> Rashdall considered that the integrity of a university was only preserved in such an internally regulated corporation, which protected the scholars from external intervention.  This independently evolving organization was absent in the universities of southern Italy and Spain, which served the bureaucratic needs of monarchs—and were, according to Rashdall, their artificial creations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pryds |first=Darleen |editor-last=Courtenay |editor-first=William J. |editor2-last=Miethke |editor2-first=Jürgen |editor3-last=Priest |editor3-first=David B. |date=2000 |title=Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society |chapter=''Studia'' as Royal Offices: Mediterranean Universities of Medieval Europe |series=Education and Society in the Middle Ages and Renaissance |volume=10 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |pages=83–99 |isbn=90-04-11351-7 |issn=0926-6070}}</ref>

The University of Paris was formally recognized when [[Pope Gregory IX]] issued the bull ''[[Parens scientiarum]]'' (1231).<ref name="Gürüz" />  This was a revolutionary step: ''[[studium generale]]'' (university) and ''universitas'' (corporation of students or teachers) existed even before, but after the issuing of the bull, they attained [[autonomy]]. "[T]he papal bull of 1233, which stipulated that anyone admitted as a teacher in [[Toulouse]] had the right to teach everywhere without further examinations (''ius ubique docendi''), in time, transformed this privilege into the single most important defining characteristic of the university and made it the symbol of its institutional autonomy&nbsp;.... By the year 1292, even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the need to seek similar bulls from [[Pope Nicholas IV]]".<ref name="Gürüz" />

[[Image:Mob Quad from Chapel Tower.jpg|thumb|This [[Mob Quad]] group of buildings in [[Merton College, Oxford]] was constructed in three phases and concluded in {{circa|1378}}]]

By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degree masters ([[abbot]]s, [[archbishop]]s, [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]]), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the [[High Middle Ages]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Robert Grosseteste]], were products of the medieval university.

The development of the medieval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of [[Aristotle]] from [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Averroes|Arab scholars]].  In fact, the European university put Aristotelian and other natural science texts at the center of its curriculum,<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of early modern science'' 2nd ed. p. 180-181</ref> with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent".<ref>Edward Grant, "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed., ''Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300-1700'', Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68</ref>

Although it has been assumed that the universities went into decline during the [[Renaissance]] due to the scholastic and Aristotelian emphasis of its curriculum being less popular than the cultural studies of [[Renaissance humanism]], Toby Huff has noted the continued importance of the European universities, with their focus on Aristotle and other scientific and philosophical texts into the early modern period, arguing that they played a crucial role in the [[Scientific Revolution]] of the 16th and 17th centuries. As he puts it "[[Copernicus]], [[Galileo]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Kepler]], and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] were all extraordinary products of the apparently Procrustean and allegedly Scholastic universities of Europe... Sociological and historical accounts of the role of the university as an institutional locus for science and as an incubator of scientific thought and arguments have been vastly understated".<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of Early Modern science,'' 2nd ed., p. 344.</ref>