Editing Military engineering (section)

==History==
[[File:MulberryB - Piers.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial view of [[Mulberry harbour]] "B" (27 October 1944)]]
[[File:COMBAT ENGINEER SETTING A CHARGE.jpg|thumb|US Combat Engineer setting a charge (1944)]]

In ancient times, military engineers were responsible for [[siege warfare]] and building field [[fortifications]], temporary camps and roads. The most notable engineers of ancient times were the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[China|Chinese]], who constructed huge siege-machines (catapults, [[battering rams]] and [[siege tower]]s). The Romans were responsible for constructing [[Castra|fortified wooden camps]] and paved roads for their [[Roman legion|legions]]. Many of these [[Roman road]]s are still in use today.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://boydellandbrewer.com/the-medieval-military-engineer-hb.html|title=The Medieval Military Engineer|last=Purton|first=Peter|date=April 2018|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-date=26 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426164505/https://boydellandbrewer.com/the-medieval-military-engineer-hb.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first civilization to have a dedicated force of military engineering specialists were the Romans, whose army contained a dedicated corps of military engineers known as [[Roman military engineering|''architecti'']]. This group was pre-eminent among its contemporaries. The scale of certain military engineering feats, such as the construction of a double-wall of fortifications {{convert|30|mi|km}} long, in just 6 weeks to completely encircle the [[Alesia_(city)#History | besieged city of Alesia in 52 B.C.E.]], is an example. Such military engineering feats would have been completely new, and probably bewildering and demoralizing, to the Gallic defenders. [[Vitruvius]] is the best known of these Roman army engineers, due to his writings surviving.

Examples of battles before the early modern period where military engineers played a decisive role include the [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|Siege of Tyre]] under [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Siege of Masada]] by [[Lucius Flavius Silva]] as well as the [[Battle of the Trench]] under the suggestion of [[Salman the Persian]] to dig a trench.

For about 600 years after the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], the practice of military engineering barely evolved in the west. In fact, much of the classic techniques and practices of Roman military engineering were lost. Through this period, the foot soldier (who was pivotal to much of the Roman military engineering capability) was largely replaced by mounted soldiers. It was not until later in the [[Middle Ages]], that military engineering saw a revival focused on siege warfare.<ref>Canadian Forces Publication, A-JS-007-003/JD-001 Customs and Traditions of the Canadian Military Engineers. 30 June 2003 [http://www.cmea-agmc.ca/redbook/CME_Customs_e.pdf]{{dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

Military engineers planned castles and fortresses. When laying siege, they planned and oversaw efforts to penetrate castle defenses. When [[castle]]s served a military purpose, one of the tasks of the [[sapper]]s was to weaken the bases of walls to enable them to be breached before means of thwarting these activities were devised. Broadly speaking, sappers were experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification systems.

[[File:Royal Military Artificers working dress 1795.jpg|left|thumb|Working dress of the [[Soldier Artificer Company|Royal Military Artificers]] in Gibraltar, 1795]]
With the 14th-century development of [[gunpowder]], new [[siege engine]]s in the form of [[cannon]]s appeared. Initially military engineers were responsible for maintaining and operating these new weapons just as had been the case with previous siege engines. In England, the challenge of managing the new technology resulted in the creation of the [[Board of Ordnance|Office of Ordnance]] around 1370 in order to administer the cannons, armaments and castles of the kingdom. Both military engineers and [[artillery]] formed the body of this organization and served together until the office's successor, the Board of Ordnance was disbanded in 1855.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Museum |first=Royal Engineers |title=Corps History – Part 2 |url=http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part2.htm |access-date=12 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204084632/http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part2.htm |archive-date=4 February 2010 }}</ref>

In comparison to older weapons, the cannon was significantly more effective against traditional [[medieval fortification]]s. Military engineering significantly revised the way fortifications were built in order to be better protected from enemy direct and plunging shot. The new fortifications were also intended to increase the ability of defenders to bring fire onto attacking enemies. Fort construction proliferated in 16th-century Europe based on the ''[[trace italienne]]'' design.<ref>Langins, Janis. ''Conserving the Enlightenment: French Military Engineering from Vauban to the Revolution''. Cambridge, Massachusetts MIT Press. 2004.</ref>

[[File:Lawrence Alma-Tadema 12.jpeg|thumb|French sappers during the [[Battle of Berezina]] in 1812]]
By the 18th century, regiments of foot (infantry) in the British, French, Prussian and other armies included pioneer detachments. In peacetime these specialists constituted the regimental tradesmen, constructing and repairing buildings, transport wagons, etc. On active service they moved at the head of marching columns with axes, shovels, and pickaxes, clearing obstacles or building bridges to enable the main body of the regiment to move through difficult terrain. The modern [[Royal Welch Fusiliers]] and [[French Foreign Legion]] still maintain pioneer sections who march at the front of ceremonial parades, carrying chromium-plated tools intended for show only. Other historic distinctions include long work aprons and the right to wear beards. In [[West Africa]], the [[Military of the Ashanti Empire|Ashanti army]] was accompanied to war by carpenters who were responsible for constructing shelters and blacksmiths who repaired weapons.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tkm5UZJz8z0C&q=carpenters+to+build+shelters%2C+blacksmiths|last=Edgerton |first=Robert B. |year=2010 |title=The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred-Year War For Africa's Gold Coast |page=61|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=9781451603736 }}</ref> By the 18th century, sappers were deployed in the [[Dahomeyan]] army during assaults against fortifications.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdI8DYItvg8C&q=European+forts+could+be+taken+by+direct+assault|last1=Thornton |first1=John Kelly|author-link=John Thornton (historian)|year=1999|title=Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800|page=85|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|isbn=9781857283921}}</ref>

The [[Peninsular War]] (1808–14) revealed deficiencies in the training and knowledge of officers and men of the [[British Army]] in the conduct of siege operations and bridging. During this war low-ranking [[Royal Engineers]] officers carried out large-scale operations. They had under their command working parties of two or three battalions of infantry, two or three thousand men, who knew nothing in the art of siegeworks. Royal Engineers officers had to demonstrate the simplest tasks to the soldiers, often while under enemy fire. Several officers were lost and could not be replaced, and a better system of training for siege operations was required. On 23 April 1812 an establishment was authorised, by Royal Warrant, to teach "Sapping, Mining, and other Military Fieldworks" to the junior officers of the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Corps of Royal Military Artificers, Sappers and Miners.

The first courses at the Royal Engineers Establishment were done on an all ranks basis with the greatest regard to economy. To reduce staff the NCOs and officers were responsible for instructing and examining the soldiers. If the men could not read or write they were taught to do so, and those who could read and write were taught to draw and interpret simple plans. The Royal Engineers Establishment quickly became the centre of excellence for all fieldworks and bridging. Captain [[Charles Pasley]], the director of the Establishment, was keen to confirm his teaching, and regular exercises were held as demonstrations or as experiments to improve the techniques and teaching of the Establishment. From 1833 bridging skills were demonstrated annually by the building of a pontoon bridge across the [[Medway]] which was tested by the infantry of the garrison and the cavalry from [[Maidstone]]. These demonstrations had become a popular spectacle for the local people by 1843, when 43,000 came to watch a field day laid on to test a method of assaulting earthworks for a report to the Inspector General of Fortifications. In 1869 the title of the Royal Engineers Establishment was changed to "The School of Military Engineering" (SME) as evidence of its status, not only as the font of engineer doctrine and training for the [[British Army]], but also as the leading scientific military school in Europe.
[[File:Baileys Bridge in Korea.jpg| thumb| A [[Bailey bridge]] being deployed in the [[Korean War]] to replace a bridge destroyed in combat.]]

The dawn of the [[internal combustion engine]] marked the beginning of a significant change in military engineering. With the arrival of the [[History of the automobile|automobile]] at the end of the 19th century and [[Aviation history#Heavier than air|heavier than air flight]] at the start of the 20th century, military engineers assumed a major new role in supporting the movement and deployment of these systems in war. Military engineers gained vast knowledge and experience in [[explosive]]s. They were tasked with planting bombs, [[land mine|landmines]] and [[dynamite]].

At the end of [[World War I]], the standoff on the Western Front caused the [[Imperial German Army]] to gather experienced and particularly skilled soldiers to form "Assault Teams" which would break through the Allied trenches. With enhanced training and special weapons (such as [[flamethrower]]s), these squads achieved some success, but too late to change the outcome of the war. In early WWII, however, the [[Wehrmacht]] "Pioniere" battalions proved their efficiency in both attack and defense, somewhat inspiring other armies to develop their own combat engineers battalions. Notably, the attack on Fort [[Eben-Emael]] in Belgium was conducted by Luftwaffe [[military glider|glider]]-deployed combat engineers.

The need to defeat the German defensive positions of the "[[Atlantic wall]]" as part of the amphibious landings in Normandy in 1944 led to the development of specialist combat engineer vehicles. These, collectively known as [[Hobart's Funnies]], included a specific vehicle to carry combat engineers, the [[Churchill tank|Churchill AVRE]]. These and other dedicated assault vehicles were organised into the specialised [[79th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|79th Armoured Division]] and deployed during [[Operation Overlord]] – 'D-Day'.

Other significant military engineering projects of [[World War II]] include [[Mulberry harbour]] and [[Operation Pluto]].

Modern military engineering still retains the Roman role of building field [[fortification]]s, road paving and breaching terrain obstacles. A notable military engineering task was, for example, breaching the [[Suez Canal]] during the [[Yom Kippur War]].