Editing Minoan civilization (section)

==Chronology and history==
{{Further|Minoan chronology|Minoan pottery|Minoan eruption#Eruption dating|l3=Dating the Thera eruption}}
{| class="wikitable floatright border: gray solid 1px; text-align: center; background: white;"
|- style="background: #ececec;"
|+Minoan chronology
!Timespan!!colspan=2|Period
|-
| 3100–2650{{nbsp}}BC{{efn|This chronology is based on Manning (2012), which gives absolute dates based on radiocarbon dating.}}
| EM I
| rowspan="4"| Prepalatial
|-
| 2650–2200{{nbsp}}BC
| EM II
|-
| 2200–2100{{nbsp}}BC
| EM III
|-
| 2100–1925{{nbsp}}BC
| MM IA
|-
| 1925–1875{{nbsp}}BC
| MM IB
| rowspan="2"| Protopalatial
|-
| 1875–1750{{nbsp}}BC
| MM II
|-
| 1750–1700{{nbsp}}BC
| MM III
| rowspan="3"| Neopalatial
|-
| 1700–1625{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IA
|-
| 1625–1470{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IB
|-
| 1470–1420{{nbsp}}BC
| LM II
| rowspan="4"| Postpalatial
|-
| 1420–1330{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IIIA
|-
| 1330–1200{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IIIB
|-
| 1200–1075{{nbsp}}BC
| LM IIIC
|}

Two systems of [[Relative dating|relative chronology]] are used for the Minoans. The first, based on [[pottery]] styles, divides Minoan history into three major periods: Early Minoan (EM), Middle Minoan (MM) and Late Minoan (LM). These periods can be divided using Roman numerals (e.g. EM I, EM II, EM III), which can be further divided using capital letters (e.g. LM IIIA, LMIIIB, LM IIIC). An alternative system, proposed by Greek archaeologist [[Nikolaos Platon]], divides Minoan history into four periods termed Prepalatial, Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and Postpalatial.

Establishing an [[absolute dating|absolute chronology]] has proved difficult. Archaeologists have attempted to determine calendar dates by synchronizing the periods of Minoan history with those of their better understood contemporaries. For example, Minoan artifacts from the LM IB period have been found in [[18th Dynasty]] contexts in Egypt, for which [[Egyptian chronology]] provides calendar dates. However, dates determined in this manner do not always match the results of [[carbon dating]] and other methods based on [[natural science]]. Much of the controversy concerns the dating of the [[Minoan eruption|eruption of Thera]], which is known to have occurred towards the end of the LM IA period. While carbon dating places this event (and thus LM IA) around 1600 BC, synchronism with Egyptian records would place it roughly a century later.<ref name="Manning">{{cite journal| last=Manning|first=Sturt W|author2=Ramsey, CB |author3=Kutschera, W |author4=Higham, T |author5=Kromer, B |author6=Steier, P |author7=Wild, EM|title=Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700–1400{{nbsp}}BC|journal=Science|volume=312|issue=5773|pages=565–569|year=2006|doi=10.1126/science.1125682|pmid=16645092|bibcode = 2006Sci...312..565M |s2cid=21557268}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last=Friedrich|first=Walter L|author2=Kromer, B |author3=Friedrich, M |author4=Heinemeier, J |author5=Pfeiffer, T |author6=Talamo, S |title=Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627–1600 B.C|journal=Science|volume=312|issue=5773|page=548|year=2006|doi=10.1126/science.1125087|pmid=16645088|s2cid=35908442}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.therafoundation.org/articles/chronololy/ |website=Thera Foundation |title=Chronology|access-date=2009-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=New Carbon Dates Support Revised History of Ancient Mediterranean|author=Balter, M|journal=Science|volume=312|issue=5773|year=2006|pages=508–509|doi=10.1126/science.312.5773.508|pmid=16645054|s2cid=26804444|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Warren PM|title=Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149)|veditors=Czerny E, Hein I, Hunger H, Melman D, Schwab A |publisher=Peeters |location=Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium |year=2006|pages=2: 305–321 |isbn=978-90-429-1730-9 }}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Historical overview}} Origins ===
{{main|Neolithic Crete}}
Although stone-tool evidence suggests that [[hominin]]s may have reached Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, evidence for the first anatomically modern human presence dates to 10,000–12,000 [[YBP]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/16/science/16archeo.html Wilford, J.N., "On Crete, New Evidence of Very Ancient Mariners"], ''The New York Times,'' Feb 2010</ref><ref>[https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/01/ancient-seafarers/ Bowner, B., "Hominids Went Out of Africa on Rafts"], ''Wired,'' Jan 2010</ref> The oldest evidence of modern human habitation on Crete is pre-ceramic [[Neolithic]] farming-community remains which date to about 7000{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Broodbank | first1 = C. | last2 = Strasser | first2 = T. | year = 1991 | title = Migrant farmers and the Neolithic colonisation of Crete | journal = Antiquity | volume = 65 | issue = 247| pages = 233–245 | doi=10.1017/s0003598x00079680| s2cid = 163054761 }}</ref> A comparative study of [[DNA]] [[haplogroups]] of modern Cretan men showed that a male founder group, from [[Anatolia]] or the [[Levant]], is shared with the Greeks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dirkschweitzer.net/E3b-papers/KingAHG-08-72-205.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305052142/http://dirkschweitzer.net/E3b-papers/KingAHG-08-72-205.pdf|url-status=dead|title=R.J. King, S.S. Ozcan et al., "Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic"|archivedate=March 5, 2009}}</ref> The Neolithic population lived in open villages. Fishermen's huts were found on the shores, and the fertile [[Messara Plain]] was used for agriculture.<ref name="bengtson">Hermann Bengtson: ''Griechische Geschichte'', C.H. Beck, München, 2002. 9th Edition. {{ISBN|340602503X}}. pp. 8–15</ref>

===Early Minoan===
[[File:AMC_Early_Minoan_bird-shaped_vessel.jpg|thumb|150px|alt=An Early Minoan vessel shaped like a bird.|An Early Minoan bird-shaped vessel.]]

Early Minoan society developed largely continuously from local Neolithic predecessors, with some cultural influence and perhaps migration from eastern populations. This period saw a gradual shift from localized clan-based villages towards the more urbanized and stratified society of later periods.<ref name=TomkinsSchoepHandbook>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tomkins |first1=Peter|last2=Schoep|first2=Ilse|year=2012 |title=Crete |editor-last=Cline |editor-first=Eric |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean |pages=66–82 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0005|isbn=978-0199873609}}</ref>

'''EM I''' (c. 3100-2650 BC) is marked by the appearance of the first painted ceramics. Continuing a trend that began during the Neolithic, settlements grew in size and complexity, and spread from fertile plains towards highland sites and islands as the Minoans learned to exploit less hospitable terrain.<ref name=TomkinsSchoepHandbook/><ref>{{cite book |last=Watrous |first=L. Vance |year=2021 |title=Minoan Crete: An Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=35–38|isbn=9781108440493}}</ref>

'''EM II''' (c. 2650-2200 BC) has been termed an international era. Trade intensified and Minoan ships began sailing beyond the Aegean to Egypt and Syria, possibly enabled by the invention of masted ships. Minoan material culture shows increased international influence, for instance in the adoption of [[Minoan seals]] based on the older [[Ancient Near Eastern seals and sealing practices|Near Eastern seal]]. Minoan settlements grew, some doubling in size, and monumental buildings were constructed at sites that would later become palaces.<ref name=TomkinsSchoepHandbook/><ref>{{cite book |last=Watrous |first=L. Vance |year=2021 |title=Minoan Crete: An Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=38–48|isbn=9781108440493}}</ref>

'''EM III''' (c. 2200-2100 BC) saw the continuation of these trends.

===Middle Minoan===

[[File:Palace_of_Knossos_Crete_Greece_(44812341684).jpg|thumb|280px|alt=West facade of the Palace at Knossos|The western façade of the Palace at Knossos. Like other palaces, it was built during the Middle Minoan era but continually renovated throughout its existence.]]

'''MM I''' (c. 2100–1875 BC) saw the emergence of Protopalatial society. During MM IA (c. 2100-1925 BC), populations increased dramatically at sites such as Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia, accompanied by major construction projects. During MM IB (c. 1925-1875 BC), the first palaces were built at these sites, in areas which had been used for communal ceremonies since the Neolithic. Middle Minoan artisans developed new colorful paints and adopted the [[potter's wheel]] during MM IB, producing wares such as [[Kamares ware]].<ref name=TomkinsSchoepHandbook/><ref name=SchoepHandbook>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Schoep|first=Ilse|year=2012 |title=Crete |editor-last=Cline |editor-first=Eric |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean |pages=113–125 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008|isbn=978-0199873609}}</ref><ref name="Minoan Pottery">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hallager|first=Birgitta|year=2012 |title=Minoan Pottery |editor-last=Cline |editor-first=Eric |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean |pages=405–414 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0030|isbn=978-0199873609}}</ref>

'''MM II''' (c. 1875–1700 BC) saw the development of the Minoan writing systems, [[Cretan hieroglyphs|Cretan hieroglyphic]] and [[Linear A]]. It ended with mass destructions generally attributed to earthquakes, though violent destruction has been considered as an alternative explanation.<ref name=SchoepHandbook /><ref>{{cite book |last=Watrous |first=L. Vance |year=2021 |title=Minoan Crete: An Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=52–76|isbn=9781108440493}}</ref>

'''MM III''' (c. 1750–1700 BC) marks the beginning of the Neopalatial period. Most of the palaces were rebuilt with architectural innovations, with the notable exception of Phaistos. Cretan hieroglyphs were abandoned in favor of Linear A, and Minoan cultural influence becomes significant in mainland Greece.<ref name=SchoepHandbook/><ref name=welwei>Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: ''Die Griechische Frühzeit'', C.H. Beck, München, 2002. {{ISBN|3406479855}}. pp. 12–18</ref>

===Late Minoan===

The Late Minoan period was an eventful time that saw profound change in Minoan society. Many of the most recognizable Minoan artifacts date from this time, for instance the [[Minoan snake goddess figurines|snake goddess figurines]], [[La Parisienne (fresco)|La Parisienne Fresco]], and the [[Minoan pottery#Marine style|marine style]] of pottery decoration.<ref name="HallagerHandbook">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Hallager |first1=Erik|year=2012 |title=Crete |editor-last=Cline |editor-first=Eric |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean |pages=149–159 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0011|isbn=978-0199873609}}</ref>

'''Late Minoan I''' (c. 1700-1470 BC) was a continuation of the prosperous Neopalatial culture. A notable event from this era was the [[Minoan eruption|eruption of the Thera volcano]], which occurred around 1600 BC towards the end of the LM IA subperiod.<ref name="HallagerHandbook" /> One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about {{convert|60|to|100|km3|cumi}} of material and was measured at 7 on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]].<ref name="McCoy2002">{{cite conference |author=McCoy, FW |author2=Dunn, SE|title=Modelling the Climatic Effects of the LBA Eruption of Thera: New Calculations of Tephra Volumes May Suggest a Significantly Larger Eruption than Previously Reported|book-title=Chapman Conference on Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere |url=http://www.agu.org/meetings/cc02babstracts/McCoy.pdf|publisher=American Geographical Union|year=2002|location=Thera, Greece|access-date=2007-05-29}}</ref><ref name="Sigurdsson">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sigurdsson H, Carey S, Alexandri M, Vougioukalakis G, Croff K, Roman C, Sakellariou D, Anagnostou C, Rousakis G, Ioakim C, Gogou A, Ballas D, Misaridis T, Nomikou P |year=2006 |title=Marine Investigations of Greece's Santorini or Akrotiri Volcanic Field |journal=Eos |volume=87 |issue=34 |pages=337–348 |url=http://www.uri.edu/endeavor/thera/EOS.pdf |doi=10.1029/2006EO340001 |bibcode=2006EOSTr..87..337S |s2cid=55457903 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630233518/http://www.uri.edu/endeavor/thera/EOS.pdf |archive-date=June 30, 2007 }}</ref> While the eruption destroyed [[Cycladic]] settlements such as [[Akrotiri (prehistoric city)|Akrotiri]] and led to the abandonment of some sites in northeast Crete, other Minoan sites such as Knossos continued to prosper. The post-eruption LM IB period (c.1625-1470) saw ambitious new building projects, booming international trade, and artistic developments such as the [[Minoan pottery#Marine style|marine style]].<ref name="HallagerHandbook" />

[[File:AMI_-_Oktopusvase.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=A Minoan vase featuring an octopus.|A [[Minoan pottery#Marine style|Marine Style]] vase from {{circa|1500 BC}} found in Palaikastro, and commonly known as the ''Octopus Vase''; typical of the Late Minoan IB period that followed the eruption of Thera. It is currently in the [[Heraklion Museum]].]]

Late Minoan IB (c. 1625-1470 BC) ended with severe destructions throughout the island, marking the end of Neopalatial society. These destructions are thought to have been deliberate, since they spared certain sites in a manner inconsistent with natural disasters. For instance, the town at Knossos burned while the palace itself did not. The causes of these destructions have been a perennial topic of debate. While some researchers attributed them to Mycenaean conquerors, others have argued that they were the result of internal upheavals. Similarly, while some researchers have attempted to link them to lingering environmental disruption from the Thera eruption, others have argued that the two events are too distant in time for any causal relation.<ref name="HallagerHandbook" />

'''Late Minoan II''' (c. 1470-1420 BC) is sparsely represented in the archaeological record, but appears to have been a period of decline.<ref name="HallagerHandbook" />

'''Late Minoan III''' (c. 1420-1075 BC) shows profound social and political changes. Among the palaces, only Knossos remained in use, though it too was destroyed by LM IIIB2. The language of administration shifted to [[Mycenaean Greek]] and material culture shows increased mainland influence, reflecting the rise of a Greek-speaking elite.<ref name="HallagerHandbook" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Watrous |first=L. Vance |year=2021 |title=Minoan Crete: An Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=188–201|isbn=9781108440493}}</ref> In Late Minoan IIIC (c. 1200-1075 BC), coinciding with the wider [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], coastal settlements were abandoned in favor of defensible locations on higher ground. These small villages, some of which grew out of earlier mountain shrines, continued aspects of recognizably Minoan culture until the [[Greek Dark Ages|Early Iron Age]].<ref name="HallagerHandbook" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Watrous |first=L. Vance |year=2021 |title=Minoan Crete: An Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=197–201 |isbn=9781108440493}}</ref>