Editing Mithridatic Wars (section)

==Wars==

=== Prelude ===
The Mithridatic Wars resulted from Mithridates consolidating his neighboring kingdoms into his realm which was opposed by Rome. Mithridates incorporated the Kingdom of Cappadocia by marrying his sister to its king before killing him and installing his young nephew, [[Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia|Ariarathes IX]], on the throne as a puppet ruler.<ref>Sviatoslav, ''Dynastic Rearrangements,'' p. 1</ref> Mithridates supported a rival claimant to the throne of Bithynia, [[Socrates Chrestus]], as another puppet ruler after overthrowing his half-brother, [[Nicomedes IV of Bithynia|Nicomedes IV]].<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 10</ref> Rival claimants to these thrones fled to the Roman Senate to plead their cases over the inheritance disputes and influence of Pontus in their kingdoms.<ref>Sviatoslav, ''Dynastic Rearrangements'', pp. 2–4</ref> [[Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia|Ariobarzanes]], a Cappadocian nobleman, also made his case against Ariarathes IX and was selected as the senate-approved king of Cappadocia. A senatorial legation was dispatched to head east to supplant the Mithridates-backed kings for Roman-favored ones.

This legation, the Aquilian Legation, was sent from Rome in the summer of 90 BC to install the Rome-supported figures onto the thrones of Bithynia and Cappadocia. The Legation was led by [[Manius Aquillius (consul 101 BC)|Manius Aquillius]], a prominent politician who previously served as consul in 129 BC. The legation gained the army of Cassius, the governor of the Roman province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]].<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 11</ref> Mithridates did not oppose the Roman legation and by the fall of 90 BC both Nicomedes IV and Ariobarzanes I were installed as kings of their respective countries without any fighting. With their goal achieved, the legation left the following winter. Before the legation left, however, Aquillius urged the kings to attack Mithridates to repay loans they had taken out previously to bribe senators in supporting their claims.<ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King,'' pp. 140–142; Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 11; Sviatoslav, ''Dynastic Rearrangements'', p. 13</ref>

Nicomedes IV began hostilities with Mithridates in 90 BC, almost immediately after being installed as king of Bithynia. Nicomedes launched raids into Pontic territory by the spring of 89 BC which led to Mithridates sending delegates to Rome in response to the Roman client state's attacks.<ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King'', pp. 142–144</ref> Rome responded that Bithynia shouldn't raid Pontus but didn't allow Mithridates to attack Bithynia in retaliation.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 14</ref>

In the summer of 89 BC, Mithridates led an army into Cappadocia to remove the Roman-appointed Ariobarzanes I and occupy the kingdom.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic wars'', 15; Golden, ''Crisis Management During the Roman Republic'', p. 183</ref> This military action went against what the Aquilian Legation had enforced and was used as justification for war against Mithridates and Pontus, beginning war between Rome and Pontus.

===First===
The [[First Mithridatic War]] (89–85 BC) resulted from Mithridates sending an army into Cappadocia, a Roman ally, to remove its senate-supported king. Rome was busy with the [[Social War (91–87 BC)|Social War]] and was slow to direct forces eastward to stop Mithridates. One of the consuls for the year, Sulla, was dispatched with five legions after 18 months of preparations in 87 BC, the first major force sent by Rome since the start of the war.

In 89 BC, Mithridates continued after his occupation of Cappadocia into Bithynia where he defeated Nicomedes IV and occupied the kingdom.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History,'' 40; Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars,'' 17–18</ref> Following this, Roman forces in the region marshalled an army to force Mithridates out under the direction of Manius Aquillius who was still in Anatolia. Mithridates defeated this force and continued his advance throughout Anatolia unchecked. <ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King'', pp. 154–156; Golden, ''Crisis Management During the Roman Republic'', p. 185</ref> In 88 BC, along with the occupation of Cappadocia, Mithridates fully controlled the Roman provinces of Asia and Cilicia.

In spring of 88 BC, Mithridates's forces enacted the [[Asiatic Vespers]] which saw the systematic killing of Roman and Latin-speaking people in these provinces to remove any Roman influences from his conquered lands.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 22 & 23; Plutarch, ''Life of Sulla,'' 24; Mayor, ''The Poison King'', p. 171</ref> The death toll of these massacres have been estimated at 80,000 or more.<ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King'', p. 174</ref> [[Aristion]], an Athenian philosopher was originally sent to Mithridates as ambassador but became close friends with the king and entered into his service. In 88 BC, Mithridates sent Aristion back to [[Athens]], where Aristion convinced its citizens to revolt and declare him Tyrant of Athens.<ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King'', pp. 177–179; Appian, ''Mithridatic wars'', 28</ref> Mithridates also sent Archelaus, one of his generals, with a sizeable Pontic force to aid Aristion against the Romans.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'', 14; Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 28–29</ref> The city revolted against Roman rule with support from Mithridates with several other cities joining Athens. Aristion sent [[Apellicon of Teos]] with a force to seize the sacred treasury stored at [[Delos]] which was still loyal to Rome. Apellicon sacked the island of [[Delos]], killing approximately 100,000 of its inhabitants before enslaving any left alive.<ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King'', p. 190</ref> Apellicon seized the wealth kept on the island, particularly the sacred Treasury of the temple of [[Apollo]] that the island was famous for before returning to Athens.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 28; Mayor, ''The Poison King'', p. 190</ref>

Sulla landed in [[Epirus]] in 87 BC, before marching on Athens which was the leader of the revolt in Greece. In the summer of that year he besieged Athens; the siege lasted until early 86 when Roman forces broke through the defenses to storm Athens.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Sulla'', 14</ref> Aristion and some of his followers retreated onto the Acropolis where they were besieged by the Romans until late spring, after which Aristion was killed.

In 86 BC, a Roman force under [[Lucius Valerius Flaccus (consul 86 BC)|Lucius Valerius Flaccus]] was dispatched to apprehend Sulla and defeat Mithridates. Flaccus chose to deal with Mithridates before Sulla, crossing the Hellespont into Pontic-occupied territory. Flaccus was killed by a mutiny within his forces led by [[Gaius Flavius Fimbria (cavalry prefect)|Gaius Flavius Fimbria]] who took control of the Roman force.<ref>Brennan, ''The Praetorship in the Roman Republic'', p. 557</ref> Flaccus besieged and took the city of [[Pergamon]] where Mithridates was at the time; however, he was unable to stop Mithridates from fleeing to safety by sea.

Archelaus escaped the city with his forces and engaged Sulla in the [[Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in central [[Boeotia]]. Mithridates sent another of his generals, [[Taxiles (Pontic army officer)|Taxiles]], with reinforcements for Archelaus. The Pontic force outnumbered the Roman one; however, the Romans won the battle, capturing Taxiles and forcing Archelaus to flee with the survivors to [[Chalcis]].<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 42–43; Plutarch, ''Life of Sulla'', 15</ref> While there, Archelaus received reinforcements and returned to mainland Greece where he engaged Sulla again in 85 BC at the [[Battle of Orchomenus]]. Archelaus's force outnumbered the Romans once again, but the Roman force emerged victorious.<ref>Appian, Mithridatic Wars, 43–45, Florus, Epitome of Roman History, 10; Mayor, The Poison King, pp. 205–208</ref> Archelaus managed to flee the battlefield, returning to Mithridates. Mithridates did not launch another invasion of Greece and withdrew his forces back to Anatolia.

Later in 85 BC, Mithridates and Archelaus met with Sulla at Dardanos to discuss a peace treaty. The war ended with the [[Treaty of Dardanos]]. It stipulated that the Kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia would be restored to the Roman-supported kings, but Mithridates would maintain his own kingdom of Pontus. After ending the war, Sulla quickly withdrew back to Rome as a power struggle was developing into a civil war between factions within the senate.

===Second===
The [[Second Mithridatic War]] (83–81 BC) began when Roman forces attacked the Kingdom of Pontus, reigniting conflict between Rome and Mithridates. This ended the peace that the previous Treaty of Dardanos in 85 BC which ended the First Mithridatic War three years earlier. The Roman forces were commanded by [[Lucius Licinius Murena (propraetor in Asia)|Lucius Licinius Murena]] who had served as Sulla's legate and was stationed in the region to oversee its defense. Murena ordered an attack on the Pontic city of [[Comana Pontica|Comana]] out of fear that Mithridates was preparing a renewed invasion into Roman territory when Mithridates was raising forces to deal with a rebellion of Crimean tribes in the north.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars,'' 64</ref>

Murena marched his forces into the Kingdom of Pontus after his attack on Comana, his advance unopposed by Mithridates's forces. Mithridates sent an ambassador to Murena to stop the conflict because of the peace established by the treaty of Dardanos, Murena replied that there was no treaty as Sulla hadn't written it out.<ref name=":0">Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 65</ref> Murena plundered Pontic villages in 82 BC before returning to Cappadocia. Mithridates then sent envoys to the Roman senate asking for them to recall the Roman forces that were laying waste to his territory. The senate agreed with Mithridates, ordering Murena to withdraw and end his attack on the Pontic Kingdom; Murena refused and continued the conflict.<ref name=":0" /><!-- Possible error - why would Mithridates plunder his own villages before retreating to Roman-allied Cappadocia? Perhaps author is referring to Murena. -->

Murena was met by a minor Pontic army led by [[Gordius of Cappadocia|Gordius]], one of Mithridates' generals, later in 82 BC. The Roman and Pontic forces met at the [[Kızılırmak River|Halys River]] where they engaged in the ensuing [[battle of Halys]]. During the battle the outnumbered Pontic forces stood against superior Roman forces until Mithridates himself arrived with reinforcements, defeating the Romans. The decisive battle was the only major engagement between Roman and Pontic forces in the Second Mithridatic War.

The war ended when Sulla dispatched envoys to Murena to end the conflict as Mithridates hadn't broken the treaty they had agreed upon years earlier. Peace was established between Pontus and Rome by 81 BC after which Murena was recalled from Anatolia back to Rome.<ref>Tony, ''Dictionary of battles and sieges''</ref> This peace continued until 74 BC when Mithridates invaded Roman territory in Asia Minor sparking the [[Third Mithridatic War]].

===Third===
The [[Third Mithridatic War]] (74–63 BC). The Roman forces were mainly led by [[Lucullus|Lucius Licinius Lucullus]] (75–66 BC) and then by [[Pompey]] (66–63 BC). Several states were drawn into the war through alliances on both Roman and Pontic sides, like the Kingdom of Armenia on Mithridates's side. The war started when the King of Bithynia, an allied client state of Rome, died in 74 BC and granted his kingdom to Rome in his will, Mithridates launched an invasion as this would mean Rome only gained more influence in Asia Minor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Matyzak |first=Philip |title=Mithridates the Great, Rome's Indomitable Enemy |pages=101–102}}</ref> Mithridates launched the invasion around the time that [[Quintus Sertorius]], an old supporter of Gaius Marius's Populist faction who still opposed the senate, was in the middle of a major revolt against Rome in [[Hispania]].<ref>Zarko, ''Bellum Dardanicum and the Third Mithridatic War'', p. 4</ref>

The Senate responded to Mithridates's invasion by sending the consuls [[Lucullus|Lucius Licinius Lucullus]] and [[Marcus Aurelius Cotta (consul 74 BC)|Marcus Aurelius Cotta]], Lucullus to Cilicia, and Cotta to Bithynia.<ref>Anthon, Charles & Smith, William, ''A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology, and Geography'', p. 226</ref> Lucullus's force would invade Pontus by land while Cotta's force would deal with the Pontic Navy. Cotta's forces engaged Mithridates's forces at [[Chalcedon]], where Cotta was positioned with his navy. The Roman defenders sallied out of their defenses to fight the Pontic force. However, the Pontic army outnumbered the Roman one, forcing them to withdraw into the city, with at least 3,000 soldiers killed.<ref name="PMM104">Philip Matyszak, ''Mithridates the Great, Rome's indomitable Enemy'', p. 104; Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 8.</ref> After this, Mithridates launched a raid on the harbor, destroying four ships and capturing the other 60, several thousand more Roman soldiers died in the fighting before Mithridates left Chalcedon.<ref name="PMM1042">Philip Matyszak, ''Mithridates the Great, Rome's indomitable Enemy'', p. 104; Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 8.</ref> Cotta's force was reduced to a fraction of what it once was, giving Mithridates impunity to take the nearby cities of [[Nicaea]], [[Lampsacus]], [[Nicomedia]], and [[Apamea (Phrygia)|Apameia]].

The city of [[Cyzicus]] resisted Mithridates's advance, forcing him to besiege it in 73 BC. The city held out until Lucullus's arrival with reinforcements that counter-sieged the Pontic army. Mithridates sent a detachment away with the sick and wounded but they were ambushed by the Romans at the [[Battle of the Rhyndacus (73 BC)|Battle of Rhyndacus]].<ref>Lee Fratantuono, ''Lucullus, the life and campaigns of a Roman conqueror'', p. 60; Philip Matyszak, ''Mithridates the Great, Rome's indomitable enemy'', p. 112.</ref> Mithridates broke out in the winter of that year, marching towards [[Lampsacus]]; Lucullus pursued them, further depleting the Pontic army.

A Pontic navy led by [[Marcus Marius (quaestor 76 BC)|Marcus Marius]], a supporter of Sertorius and advisor to Mithridates, set sail into the Aegean Sea. Lucullus would fight the navy at an island near [[Lemnos]], where it was camped, destroying or capturing 32 ships and taking Marius prisoner.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 77</ref> After dealing with both the army and navy, Lucullus and Cotta planned out an invasion of Pontus to end Mithridates's threat, however before they could, Mithridates seized the important city of [[Heraclea Pontica]].<ref>Lee Fratantuono, ''Lucullus: the Life and Campaigns of a Roman Conqueror'' p. 159; Memnon, ''History of Heraclea'', 29.</ref> Cotta was tasked with retaking the city while Lucullus would march through the Galatian highlands into Pontus. Cotta began the siege of Heraclea Pontic in 73 BC; it took two years until the city fell to the Romans in 71 BC.<ref>T. Robert S. Broughton, ''The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol II'' (1952), pp. 110, 116 & 122</ref>

In 72 BC, Lucullus marched through Galatia into the Pontic Heartland without fighting the native [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]] who let the Roman force pass without engaging them.<ref>Philip Matyszak, ''Mithridates the Great: Rome's Indomitable Enemy''; Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 14.</ref> Lucullus directed his army to raid the fertile Pontic heartlands, forcing Mithridates to assemble an army of 40,000 near [[Cabira]] to fight Lucullus.<ref>Appian, Mithridatic Wars, 80</ref> Lucullus occupied an old fort overlooking Cabira, Mithridates attacked the Roman position, starting the [[Battle of Cabira]]. Mithridates's initial attack faltered, allowing the Romans to counterattack. The Pontic army broke and retreated before the Roman position. Mithridates fled eastward into Armenia to his son-in-law and ally, King Tigranes II.

After Mithridates fled Pontus, Lucullus used the opportunity to secure the kingdom, dispatching forces to occupy it. Lucullus directed the siege of [[Samsun|Amisus]], which was holding out against the Romans, before taking the city. After taking Amisus, Lucullus besieged [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]], the main port city of Pontus, taking it after fierce resistance.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 13</ref> Lucullus stayed in Anatolia while Cotta returned to Rome in 70 BC.

In 69 BC, Tigranes brought Armenia into conflict with Rome after refusing to hand over Mithridates, his father-in-law, to the Romans; Lucullus invaded Armenia the following spring. Lucullus marched on the Armenian capital at [[Tigranocerta]], where he engaged and destroyed a larger Armenian force in the subsequent [[Battle of Tigranocerta]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 26; Appian, Mithridatic Wars, 85 & 86</ref> In the summer of 68 BC, Lucullus marched on [[Artaxata]] and defeated another Armenian force at the [[Battle of Artaxata]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 31; Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 87; Mayor, ''The Poison King'', 304–306</ref> He then besieged the city of [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]], the main fort and treasury of Northern Mesopotamia. The city fell to Lucullus by the winter of 68 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Lucullus'', 31</ref>

During the spring of 67 BC, while Lucullus was still at Nisibis, Mithridates returned to Pontus and fought the Roman forces that were still in the region.<ref>Philip Matyszak, ''Mithridates the Great, Rome's Indomitable Enemy'', p. 139; Lee Fratantuono, ''Lucullus, the Life and Campaigns of a Roman Conqueror'', pp. 104–105;</ref> Legate [[Gaius Valerius Triarius]], who was bringing troops to reinforce Lucullus at the siege of Nisibis, took command of Roman forces in Pontus to fight the sudden return of Mithridates. The Pontic and Roman forces engaged at the [[Battle of Zela (67 BC)|Battle of Zela]], which the Romans lost, suffering 7,000 casualties, 24 tribunes, and 150 centurions.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 89; Mayor, ''The Poison King'', 310 & 311</ref> The loss forced the Romans to withdraw from Pontus, restoring Mithridates to fully control his Kingdom once again.

In the winter of 67 BC, while still sieging Nisibis, Lucullus faced unrest from his soldiers after continuously fighting throughout the war.<ref>Mayor, The Poison King, p. 306</ref> Lucullus convinced his troops to stay loyal but agreed to march back to Asia Minor and only protect the Roman provinces rather than invading Pontus or Armenia. In the following year, 66 BC, the Senate granted [[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompey]], one of the influential generals of Rome, command of Roman forces in the east to end the war.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 90 & 91</ref>

Pompey led his forces into Pontus where he engaged Mithridates at the of the [[Battle of the Lycus|Lycus]] River in central Pontus by the end of the year. Pompey defeated Mithridates, inflicting at least 10,000 casualties on the Pontic side and causing Mithridates to flee to Colchis.<ref>Mayor, ''The Poison King'', pp. 319–323; Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 100</ref> Mithridates crossed the Black Sea in the following year, 65 BC, to the Crimean lands that his eldest son, [[Machares]], held with the support of Rome. After Mithridates landed in [[Crimea]], Machares died, letting Mithridates seize control of the lands from Roman-supported rule.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 102</ref>

Following the victory at the Lycus, Pompey marched into Armenia and came to terms with Tigranes, making Armenia an allied state of Rome.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 104; Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History,'' 40; Mayor, ''The Poison King'', p. 330</ref> By 64 BC, Pompey had established a naval blockade of Bosporan Crimea to wear down Mithridates, before he marched south into Syria where Armenia held lands, he seized important cities across the region like [[Antioch]].<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic wars'', 106</ref> In 63 BC, he took cities like [[Damascus]] before involving himself in a civil war in Judea to establish it as a client state under Rome.

In 63 BC, Mithridates retreated to the citadel at [[Pantikapaion|Panticapaeum]] where he would try to gather forces to fight the Romans. After his son, [[Pharnaces II of Pontus|Pharnaces II]], rebelled against him with the support of a weary populace, Mithridates killed himself.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars,'' 111; Mayor, ''The Poison King'', pp. 345 & 346</ref> Pharnaces sent his father's body to Pompey who granted him the Crimean lands he still held, also establishing him as a Roman ally.<ref>Appian, ''Mithridatic Wars'', 113</ref> The Anatolian and Syrian lands that were occupied would be incorporated as Roman provinces, while Armenia and Judea would become allied client kingdoms allied to Rome. Pompey's successes in the war further propelled his political career as the general, granting him a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome for his efforts during the war.