Editing Mycotoxin (section)

==Major groups==
[[Aflatoxin]]s are a type of mycotoxin produced by ''[[Aspergillus]]'' species of fungi, such as ''[[Aspergillus flavus|A. flavus]]'' and ''[[Aspergillus parasiticus|A. parasiticus]]''.<ref name=Martins01>{{cite journal |vauthors=Martins ML, Martins HM, Bernardo F |title=Aflatoxins in spices marketed in Portugal |journal=Food Addit. Contam. |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=315–19 |year=2001 |pmid=11339266 |doi=10.1080/02652030120041|s2cid=30636872 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zain |first=Mohamed E. |date=2011-04-01 |title=Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals |journal=Journal of Saudi Chemical Society |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=129–144 |doi=10.1016/j.jscs.2010.06.006 |issn=1319-6103|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Pitt |first=John I. |title=Chapter 30 - Mycotoxins |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124160415000305 |work=Foodborne Infections and Intoxications (Fourth Edition) |pages=409–418 |editor-last=Morris |editor-first=J. Glenn |access-date=2023-09-12 |series=Food Science and Technology |place=San Diego |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-416041-5.00030-5 |isbn=978-0-12-416041-5 |editor2-last=Potter |editor2-first=Morris E.|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=J. David |date=1995-01-01 |title=Fungi and mycotoxins in grain: Implications for stored product research |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-474X%2894%2900039-V |journal=Journal of Stored Products Research |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1016/0022-474X(94)00039-V |issn=0022-474X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ebanks |first1=Fiona |last2=Nasrallah |first2=Hadi |last3=Garant |first3=Timothy M. |last4=McConnell |first4=Erin M. |last5=DeRosa |first5=Maria C. |date=2023-09-01 |title=Colorimetric detection of aflatoxins B1 and M1 using aptamers and gold and silver nanoparticles |journal=Advanced Agrochem |series=Special Issue on Functional Nucleic Acids |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=221–230 |doi=10.1016/j.aac.2023.07.003 |issn=2773-2371|doi-access=free }}</ref> The umbrella term aflatoxin refers to four different types of mycotoxins produced, which are B<sub>1</sub>, B<sub>2</sub>, G<sub>1</sub>, and G<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=Yin08>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yin YN, Yan LY, Jiang JH, Ma ZH |title=Biological control of aflatoxin contamination of crops |journal=J Zhejiang Univ Sci B |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=787–92 |year=2008 |pmid=18837105 |pmc=2565741 |doi=10.1631/jzus.B0860003}}</ref> Aflatoxin B<sub>1</sub>, the most toxic, is a potent [[carcinogen]] and has been directly correlated to adverse health effects, such as [[hepatocellular carcinoma|liver cancer]], in many animal species.<ref name=Martins01/> Aflatoxins are largely associated with [[Commodity|commodities]] produced in the [[tropics]] and [[subtropics]], such as [[cotton]], [[peanut]]s, [[spice]]s, [[pistachio]]s, and [[maize]].<ref name=Martins01/><ref name=Yin08/> According to the USDA, "They are probably the best known and most intensively researched mycotoxins in the world."<ref>https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/molds-food-are-they-dangerous {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref>

[[Ochratoxin]] is a mycotoxin that comes in three secondary metabolite forms, A, B, and C. All are produced by ''[[Penicillium]]'' and ''Aspergillus'' species. The three forms differ in that Ochratoxin B (OTB) is a nonchlorinated form of Ochratoxin A (OTA) and that Ochratoxin C (OTC) is an ethyl ester form Ochratoxin A.<ref name=Bayman06>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bayman P, Baker JL |title=Ochratoxins: a global perspective |journal=Mycopathologia |volume=162 |issue=3 |pages=215–23 |year=2006 |pmid=16944288 |doi=10.1007/s11046-006-0055-4|s2cid=4540706 }}</ref> ''Aspergillus ochraceus'' is found as a [[contaminant]] of a wide range of commodities including [[beverage]]s such as beer and wine. ''Aspergillus carbonarius'' is the main species found on vine fruit, which releases its toxin during the juice making process.<ref name=Mateo07>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mateo R, Medina A, Mateo EM, Mateo F, Jiménez M |title=An overview of ochratoxin A in beer and wine |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=79–83 |year=2007 |pmid=17716764 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.029}}</ref> OTA has been labeled as a carcinogen and a nephrotoxin, and has been linked to tumors in the human urinary tract, although research in humans is limited by [[confounding|confounding factors]].<ref name=Bayman06/><ref name=Mateo07/>

[[Citrinin]] is a toxin that was first isolated from ''[[Penicillium citrinum]]'', but has been identified in over a dozen species of ''Penicillium'' and several species of ''[[Aspergillus]]''. Some of these species are used to produce human foodstuffs such as cheese (''[[Penicillium camemberti]]''), sake, [[miso]], and [[soy sauce]] (''[[Aspergillus oryzae]]''). Citrinin is associated with [[yellowed rice]] disease in Japan and acts as a [[nephrotoxin]] in all animal species tested.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bennett|first=JW|author2=Klich, M|title=Mycotoxins.|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|date=Jul 2003|volume=16|issue=3|pages=497–516|pmid=12857779|doi=10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003|pmc=164220}}</ref> Although it is associated with many human foods ([[wheat]], [[rice]], [[maize|corn]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s, [[rye]], and food colored with [[Monascus]] pigment) its full significance for human health is unknown. Citrinin can also act synergistically with Ochratoxin A to depress [[RNA synthesis]] in murine kidneys.<ref name=Bennett03/>

[[Ergot]] alkaloids are compounds produced as a toxic mixture of alkaloids in the [[sclerotium|sclerotia]] of species of ''[[Claviceps]]'', which are common pathogens of various grass species. The ingestion of ergot sclerotia from infected cereals, commonly in the form of bread produced from contaminated flour, causes [[ergotism]], the human disease historically known as [[ergotism|St. Anthony's Fire]]. There are two forms of ergotism: gangrenous, affecting blood supply to extremities, and convulsive, affecting the [[central nervous system]]. Modern methods of grain cleaning have significantly reduced ergotism as a human disease; however, it is still an important veterinary problem. Ergot alkaloids have been used pharmaceutically.<ref name=Bennett03/>

[[Patulin]] is a toxin produced by the ''[[Penicillium expansum|P. expansum]]'', ''Aspergillus'', ''Penicillium'', and ''[[Paecilomyces]]'' fungal species. ''P. expansum'' is especially associated with a range of moldy [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s, in particular rotting apples and figs.<ref name=Moss08>{{cite journal |author=Moss MO |title=Fungi, quality and safety issues in fresh fruits and vegetables |journal=J. Appl. Microbiol. |volume=104 |issue=5 |pages=1239–43 |year=2008 |pmid=18217939 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03705.x|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Trucksess08>{{cite journal |vauthors=Trucksess MW, Scott PM |title=Mycotoxins in botanicals and dried fruits: A review |journal=Food Addit. Contam. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=181–92 |year=2008 |pmid=18286408 |doi=10.1080/02652030701567459|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is destroyed by the [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] process and so is not found in apple beverages, such as [[cider]]. Although patulin has not been shown to be carcinogenic, it has been reported to damage the [[immune system]] in animals.<ref name=Moss08/> In 2004, the [[European Community]] set limits to the concentrations of patulin in food products. They currently stand at 50 μg/kg in all fruit juice concentrations, at 25 μg/kg in solid apple products used for direct consumption, and at 10 μg/kg for children's apple products, including apple juice.<ref name=Moss08/><ref name=Trucksess08/>

[[Fusarium]] toxins are produced by over 50 species of ''Fusarium'' and have a history of infecting the grain of developing cereals such as [[wheat]] and [[maize]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cornely OA |title=''Aspergillus'' to Zygomycetes: causes, risk factors, prevention, and treatment of invasive fungal infections |journal=Infection |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=296–313 |year=2008 |pmid=18642109 |doi=10.1007/s15010-008-7357-z|s2cid=22919557 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schaafsma AW, Hooker DC |title=Climatic models to predict occurrence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=116–25 |year=2007 |pmid=17900733 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.08.006}}</ref> They include a range of mycotoxins, such as: the [[fumonisins]], which affect the nervous systems of [[horse]]s and may cause cancer in [[rodent]]s; the [[trichothecenes]], which are most strongly associated with chronic and fatal toxic effects in animals and humans; and [[zearalenone]], which is not correlated to any fatal toxic effects in animals or humans. Some of the other major types of ''Fusarium'' toxins include: [[enniatin]]s such as [[beauvericin]]), [[butenolide]], [[equisetin]], and [[fusarin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Desjardins AE, Proctor RH |title=Molecular biology of ''Fusarium'' mycotoxins |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=47–50 |year=2007 |pmid=17707105 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.024}}</ref>