Editing Natural science (section)

==Branches of natural science==
{{Outline|Outline of natural science}}
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2019}}

===Biology===
{{Main|Biology|Outline of biology#Branches of biology}}
[[File:Wilson1900Fig2.jpg|thumb|Onion (''[[Allium]]'') cells in different phases of the cell cycle. Growth in an '[[organism]]' is carefully controlled by regulating the cell cycle.]]
This field encompasses a diverse set of disciplines that examine phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component [[biophysics]] up to complex [[ecology|ecologies]]. Biology is concerned with the characteristics, [[scientific classification|classification]] and [[behaviors]] of [[organism]]s, as well as how [[species]] were formed and their interactions with each other and the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]].

The biological fields of [[botany]], [[zoology]], and [[medicine]] date back to early periods of civilization, while [[microbiology]] was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole.

Some key developments in biology were the discovery of [[genetics]], [[evolution]] through [[natural selection]], the [[germ theory of disease]], and the application of the techniques of [[biochemistry|chemistry]] and [[biophysics|physics]] at the level of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] or [[organic molecule]].

Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. [[Molecular biology]] is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while [[cellular biology]] is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]] look at the internal structures, and their functions, of an organism, while [[ecology]] looks at how various organisms interrelate.

===Earth science===
{{Main|Earth science|Outline of Earth sciences#Branches of Earth science}}
Earth science (also known as geoscience) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet [[Earth (planet)|Earth]], including [[geology]], [[geography]], [[geophysics]], [[geochemistry]], [[climatology]], [[glaciology]], [[hydrology]], [[meteorology]], and [[oceanography]].

Although [[mining]] and [[gemology|precious stones]] have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of [[economic geology]] and [[mineralogy]] did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly [[paleontology]], blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as [[geophysics]], in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of [[plate tectonics]] in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to [[petroleum]] and [[mineral resource]]s, [[climate]] research, and to [[environmental assessment]] and [[environmental remediation|remediation]].

====Atmospheric sciences====
{{Main|Atmospheric sciences}}
Although sometimes considered in conjunction with the earth sciences, due to the independent development of its concepts, techniques, and practices and also the fact of it having a wide range of sub-disciplines under its wing, [[atmospheric science]] is also considered a separate branch of natural science. This field studies the characteristics of different layers of the atmosphere from ground level to the edge of the space. The timescale of the study also varies from day to century. Sometimes, the field also includes the study of climatic patterns on planets other than Earth.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://scienceandtechnology.jpl.nasa.gov/research/research-topics-list/planetary-sciences/planetary-exoplanetary-atmospheres |title=Planetary & Exoplanetary Atmospheres |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |publisher=National Aeronautic Space Administration |access-date=9 November 2023 |quote= |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109012435/https://scienceandtechnology.jpl.nasa.gov/research/research-topics-list/planetary-sciences/planetary-exoplanetary-atmospheres |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Oceanography====
{{Main|Oceanography}}
The serious study of oceans began in the early- to mid-20th century. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young, but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences, or as a separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state that it has its own paradigms and practices.

====Planetary science====
{{Main|Planetary science}}
{{Expand section|date=July 2021}}

[[Planetary science]] or planetology, is the scientific study of planets, which include [[terrestrial planets]] like the Earth, and other types of planets, such as [[gas giants]] and [[ice giant]]s. Planetary science also concerns other celestial bodies, such as [[dwarf planet]]s [[moons]], [[asteroids]], and [[comets]]. This largely includes the [[Solar System]], but recently has started to expand to [[exoplanets]], particularly terrestrial [[exoplanets]]. It explores various objects, spanning from micrometeoroids to gas giants, to establish their composition, movements, genesis, interrelation, and past. Planetary science is an interdisciplinary domain, having originated from [[astronomy]] and [[Earth science]], and currently encompassing a multitude of areas, such as [[planetary geology]], [[cosmochemistry]], [[atmospheric science]], [[physics]], [[oceanography]], [[hydrology]], [[theoretical planetology]], [[glaciology]], and exoplanetology. Related fields encompass [[space physics]], which delves into the impact of the Sun on the bodies in the Solar System, and [[astrobiology]].

Planetary science comprises interconnected observational and theoretical branches. Observational research entails a combination of [[space exploration]], primarily through robotic spacecraft missions utilizing [[remote sensing]], and comparative experimental work conducted in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical aspect involves extensive [[mathematical model]]ling and [[computer simulation]].

Typically, planetary scientists are situated within astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments in universities or research centers. However, there are also dedicated planetary science institutes worldwide. Generally, individuals pursuing a career in planetary science undergo graduate-level studies in one of the Earth sciences, astronomy, astrophysics, geophysics, or physics. They then focus their research within the discipline of planetary science. Major conferences are held annually, and numerous [[academic journal|peer reviewed journals]] cater to the diverse research interests in planetary science. Some planetary scientists are employed by private research centers and frequently engage in collaborative research initiatives.

===Chemistry===
{{Main|Chemistry|Outline of chemistry#Branches of chemistry}}
[[File:Caffeine.svg|thumb|This [[structural formula]] for molecule [[caffeine]] shows a graphical representation of how the atoms are arranged.]]
Constituting the scientific study of matter at the [[atom]]ic and [[molecule|molecular]] scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as [[gas]]es, molecules, [[crystal]]s, and [[metal]]s. The composition, statistical properties, transformations, and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications.

Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "[[the central science]]" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.

Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of [[alchemy]], a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of [[Robert Boyle]], the discoverer of [[Gas|gases]], and [[Antoine Lavoisier]], who developed the theory of the [[conservation of mass]].

The [[Discoveries of the chemical elements|discovery of the chemical elements]] and [[atomic theory]] began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of [[State of matter|states of matter]], [[ion]]s, [[chemical bond]]s and [[chemical reaction]]s. The success of this science led to a complementary [[chemical industry]] that now plays a significant role in the world economy.

===Physics===
{{Main|Physics|Outline of physics#Branches of physics}}
[[File:HAtomOrbitals.png|thumb|The [[Atomic orbital|orbitals]] of the [[hydrogen atom]] are descriptions of the [[probability distribution]]s of an [[electron]] [[bound state|bound]] to a [[proton]]. Their mathematical descriptions are standard problems in [[quantum mechanics]], an important branch of physics.]]
Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the [[universe]], the [[forces]] and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. Physics is generally regarded as foundational because all other natural sciences use and obey the field's principles and laws. Physics relies heavily on [[mathematics]] as the logical framework for formulating and quantifying principles.

The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with [[philosophy]] gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Law of universal gravitation|theory of universal gravitation]] and [[classical mechanics]], an understanding of [[electricity]] and its relation to [[magnetism]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theories of [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], the development of [[thermodynamics]], and the [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] model of atomic and subatomic physics.

The field of physics is vast and can include such diverse studies as [[quantum mechanics]] and [[theoretical physics]], [[applied physics]] and [[optics]]. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like [[Isaac Newton]], [[Albert Einstein]], and [[Lev Landau]], who worked in multiple areas.

===Astronomy===
{{Main|Astronomy|Outline of astronomy#Branches of astronomy}}

Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets. Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere, including objects we can see with our naked eyes. It is one of the oldest sciences.

Astronomers of early civilizations performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found from much earlier periods. There are two types of astronomy: observational astronomy and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics. In contrast, Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards developing computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena.

[[File: Moon Dedal crater.jpg|thumb|Uncrewed and crewed spacecraft missions have been used to image distant locations within the [[Solar System]], such as this [[Apollo 11]] view of [[Daedalus (crater)|Daedalus crater]] on the [[far side of the Moon]].]]
This discipline is the science of [[Astronomical object|celestial objects]] and [[phenomenon|phenomena]] that originate outside the [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]]. It is concerned with the evolution, [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[meteorology]], [[geology]], and [[motion (physics)|motion]] of celestial objects, as well as the [[physical cosmology|formation and development of the universe]].

Astronomy includes examining, studying, and modeling stars, planets, and comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation. However, some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the [[interstellar medium]]). There is considerable overlap with [[physics]] and in some areas of [[earth science]]. There are also interdisciplinary fields such as [[astrophysics]], [[planetary sciences]], and [[cosmology]], along with allied disciplines such as [[space physics]] and [[astrochemistry]].

While the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail.

The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s development of [[celestial mechanics]] and the laws of [[gravitation]]. However, it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the [[spectroscope]] and [[photography]], along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.