Editing Order of Assassins (section)

==History==
===Origins===
[[File:Alavids-map.png|thumb|Map showing the [[Alamut]] area in [[Tabaristan]] region, modern day northern [[Iran]]]]
[[Hassan-i Sabbah]] was born in [[Qom]], ca. 1050, and did his religious studies in [[Cairo]] with the Fatimids. Sabbah's father was a [[Qahtanite]] Arab, said to be a descendant of [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyaritic kings]],<ref>Lewis (2003), p. 38</ref> having emigrated to Qom from [[Kufa]]. He made his way to Persia where, through subterfuge, he and his followers captured Alamut Castle in 1090. Sabbah adapted the fortress to suit his needs not only for defense from hostile forces, but also for indoctrination of his followers. After laying claim to the fortress at Alamut, Sabbah began expanding his influence outwards to nearby towns and districts, using his agents to gain political favour and to intimidate the local populations. Spending most of his days at Alamut producing religious works and developing doctrines for his order, Sabbah would never again leave his fortress.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=108–109}}

Shortly after establishing their headquarters at Alamut Castle, the sect captured [[Lambsar Castle]], to be the largest of the Isma'ili fortresses and confirming the Assassins' power in northern Persia. The estimated date of the capture of Lambsar varies between 1096 and 1102. The castle was taken under the command of [[Kiya Buzurg Ummid]], later Sabbah's successor, who remained commandant of the fortress for twenty years.<ref>Lewis (2003), p. 44</ref> No interactions between the Christian forces of the [[First Crusade]] and the Assassins have been noted, with the latter concentrating on the Muslim enemies of the former. Other than a mention of Tancred's 1106 taking of Apamea (see below) in ''[[Gesta Tancredi]]'',<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Gesta Tancredi of Ralph of Caen (Crusade Texts in Translation), p. 172|translator=Bernard S. Bachrach and David S. Bachrach|year=2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-1409400325}}</ref> Western Europe likely first learned of the Assassins from the chronicles of [[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea,'' published much later.

One of Sabbah's disciples named Dihdar Bu-Ali from [[Qazvin]] rallied local supporters to deflect the Seljuks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWW7AAAAIAAJ&q=dihdar+bu-ali&pg=PA675|title=History of the World Conqueror|last=Ata-Malik Juvayni|year=1997|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=9780719051456|access-date=2020-10-19|archive-date=2023-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204025304/https://books.google.com/books?id=NWW7AAAAIAAJ&q=dihdar+bu-ali&pg=PA675|url-status=live}}</ref> Their attack on Alamut Castle and surrounding areas was canceled upon the death of the sultan. The new sultan [[Berkyaruq]], son of Malik Shah I, did not continue the direct attack on Alamut, concentrating on securing his position against rivals, including his half-brother [[Muhammad I Tapar]], who eventually settled for a smaller role, becoming ''[[malik]]'' (translated as "king") in [[Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan]].

Sabbah is reputed to have remarked, "the killing of this devil is the beginning of bliss". Of the 50 assassinations conducted during Sabbah's reign, more than half were Seljuk officials, many of whom supported Muhammad I Tapar.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 47, 51, 134</ref>

The Assassins seized Persian castles of [[Rudkhan Castle|Rudkhan]] and [[Gerdkuh]] in 1096, before turning to Syria. Gerdkuh was re-fortified by Mu'ayyad al-Din Muzaffar ibn Ahmad Mustawfi, a Seljuk who was a secret Isma'ili convert, and his son Sharaf al-Din Muhammad.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gerdkuh|title=Gerdkūh, in Encyclopedia of Iranica, Volume X, Fasc. 5, p. 499|last=Daftary|first=Farhad|access-date=2020-04-21|archive-date=2012-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117034633/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gerdkuh|url-status=live}}</ref> There they occupied the fortress at [[Shaizar]] held by the [[Banu Munqidh]], using it to spread terror to [[Isfahan]], the heart of the Seljuk Empire. A rebellion by the local population drove the Assassins out, but they continued to occupy a smaller fortress at Khalinjan. In 1097, Berkyaruq associate [[Bursuq the Elder|Bursuq]] was killed by Assassins.<ref>Richards, D. S., Editor (2002). ''The Annals of the Saljuq Turks:  Selections from al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh of ibn al-Athir''. Routledge Publishing. p. 295.</ref>

By 1100, Berkyaruq had consolidated his power, and the Assassins increased their presence by infiltrating the sultan's court and army. Day-to-day functions of the court were frequently performed while armored and with weapons. The next year, he tasked his brother [[Ahmad Sanjar]], then ruler of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], to attack Assassin strongholds in [[Quhistan]]. The siege at [[Tabas]] was at first successful, with the walls of the fortress breached, but then was lifted, possibly because the Seljuk commander had been bribed. The subsequent attack was devastating to the Assassins, but the terms granted were generous and they were soon reestablished at both Quhistan and Tabas. In the years following, the Assassins continued their mission against religious and secular leaders. Given these successes, they began expanding their operations into Syria.

===Expansion into Syria===
The first ''da'i'' Hassan-i dispatched to Syria was [[al-Hakim al-Munajjim]], a Persian known as the physician-astrologer, establishing a cell in [[Aleppo]] in the early 12th century. [[Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan|Ridwan]], the emir of Aleppo, was in search of allies and worked closely with al-Hakim. The alliance was first shown in the assassination in 1103 of [[Janah ad-Dawla]], emir of Homs and a key opponent of Ridwan. He was murdered by three Assassins at the [[Great Mosque of al-Nuri (Homs)|Great Mosque of al-Nuri]] in Homs. Al-Hakim died a few weeks later and was succeeded by [[Abu Tahir al-Sa'igh|Abu Tahir al-Sa’igh]], a Persian known as the goldsmith.

While successful in cleaning the Assassins, they remained untouchable in their strongholds in the north. An eight-year war of attrition was initiated by the son of the first Assassin victim. The mission had some successes, negotiating a surrender of Khalinjan with local Assassin leader Ahmad ibn 'Abd al-Malik ibn Attāsh, with the occupants allowed to go to [[Tabas]] and [[Arrajan]]. During the siege of Alamut,<ref name="Wasserman, p. 102">Wasserman, p. 102</ref> a famine resulted and Hassan had his wife and daughters sent to the fortress at Gerdkuh. After that time, Assassins never allowed their women to be at their fortresses during military campaigns, both for protection and secrecy. In the end, ibn Attāsh did not fulfill his commitment and was flayed alive, his head delivered to the sultan.<ref>Boyle, J. A., Editor, ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', ''Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods'', Cambridge University Press, 1968, pp. 443–444</ref>

In Syria, Abu Tahir al-Sa’igh, Ridwan and [[Abu'l Fath of Sarmin]] conspired in 1106 to send a team of Assassins to murder [[Khalaf ibn Mula'ib]], emir of Apamea ([[Qalaat al-Madiq]]). Some of Khalaf's sons and guards were also killed and, after the murder, Ridwan became overlord of Apamea and its fortress [[Qalaat al-Madiq|Qal'at al-Madiq]], with Abu'l Fath as emir. A surviving son of Khalaf escaped and turned to [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]], who was at first content to leave the city in the hands of the Isma'ilis and simply collect tribute. Later, he returned and captured the city for [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]], as the town's residents overwhelmingly approved of Frankish rule. Abu'l Fath was tortured to death, while Abu Tahir ransomed himself and returned to Aleppo. This encounter, the first between the Crusaders and the Assassins, did not deter the latter from their prime mission against the Seljuks.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 102–103</ref>

Not so lucky were Ubayd Allah al-Khatib, ''qadi'' of Isfahan, and a ''qadi'' of [[Nishapur]], both of whom succumbed to the Assassins' blade.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 57–58</ref>

The Assassins wreaked havoc on the Syrian rulers, with their first major kill being that of [[Mawdud]], atabeg of Mosul, in 1113. Mawdud was felled by Assassins in Damascus while a guest of [[Toghtekin]], atabeg of Damascus. He was replaced at Mosul by [[Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi|al-Bursuqi]], who himself would be a victim of the Assassins in 1126. Toghtekin's son, the great [[Taj al-Muluk Buri|Buri]], founder of the [[Burid dynasty]], would fall victim to the Assassins in 1131, dying a year later due to his injuries.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=113–118}}

Ridwan died in 1113 and was succeeded as ruler of Aleppo by his son [[Alp Arslān al-Akhras|Alp Arslan al-Akhras]]. Alp Arslan continued his father's conciliatory approach to the Assassins. A warning from Muhammad I Tapar and a prior attempt of the assassination of Abu Harb Isa ibn Zayd, a wealthy Persian merchant, led to a wholescale expulsion of the Assassins from Aleppo in that same year. Led by militia commander Sāʿid ibn Badī, the attack resulted in the execution of Abu Tahir al-Sa’igh and the brother of al-Hakim al-Munajjim, with 200 other Assassins killed or imprisoned, some thrown from the top of the citadel. Many took refuge with the [[Banu Munqidh#Provision of asylum|Banu Munqidh]] at Shaizar. Revenge was slow but sure, taken out on Sāʿid ibn Badī in 1119. The shiftless Arp Arslan had exiled Sāʿid to [[Qal'at Ja'bar|Qalʿat Jaʿbar]], where he was murdered along with two of his sons by Assassins.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Annals of the Saljuq Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi'l-Tarikh ibn al-Athir, 1097–1146 |editor1-last=Richards |editor1-first=D. S. |publisher=Routledge Publishing |year=2005 |page=164}}</ref>{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=113–114}}

The Assassins struck again in Damascus in 1116. While a guest of Toghtekin's, Kurdish emir Ahmad-Il ibn Ibrāhim ibn Wahsūdān was sitting next to his host when a grieving man approached with a petition he wished be conveyed to Muhammad I Tapar. When Ahmad-Il accepted the document, he was stuck with a dagger, then again and again by a second and third accomplice. It was thought that the real target may have been Toghtekin, but the attackers were discovered to be Assassins, likely after Ahmad-Il, the foster brother of sultan.<ref>D. S. Edwards, Editor (2010). ''The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh. Part 1, 1097–1146,'' p. 177</ref><ref>Lewis (2003), p. 58</ref>

In 1118, Muhammad I Tapar died and his brother Ahmad Sanjar became Seljuk sultan, and Hassan sent ambassadors to seek peace. When Sanjar rebuffed these ambassadors, Hassan then sent his Assassins to the sultan. Sanjar woke up one morning with a dagger stuck in the ground beside his bed. Alarmed, he kept the matter a secret. A messenger from Hassan arrived and stated, "Did I not wish the sultan well that the dagger which was struck in the hard ground would have been planted on your soft breast". For the next several decades there ensued a ceasefire between the Isma'ilis and the Seljuks. Sanjar himself pensioned the Assassins on taxes collected from the lands they owned, gave them grants and licenses, and even allowed them to collect tolls from travelers.<ref>Wasserman, p. 105</ref>

By 1120, the Assassins' position in Aleppo had improved to the point that they demanded the small citadel of Qal'at ash-Sharif from [[Ilghazi]], then [[List of rulers of Aleppo#Artuqid Dynasty|Artuqid emir of Aleppo]]. Rather than refuse, he had the citadel demolished. The Assassins' influence in Aleppo came to an end in 1124 when they were expelled by [[Belek Ghazi]], a successor to Ilghazi. Nevertheless, the ''qadi'' [[Ibn al-Khashshab (died 1125)|ibn al-Khashahab]] who had overseen the demolition of Qal'at ash-Sharif was killed by Assassins in 1125.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=115}} At the same time, the Assassins of [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbakir]] were set upon by the locals, resulting in hundreds killed.<ref>''The Annals of the Saljuq Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh ibn al-Athir'', p. 255</ref>

In 1121, [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]], the [[Vizier (Fatimid Caliphate)|vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate]], was murdered by three Assassins from Aleppo, causing a seven-day celebration among the Isma'ilis and no great mourning among the court of Fatimid caliph [[al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah]] who resented his growing boldness. Al-Afdal Shahanshah was replaced as vizier by [[Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi|al-Ma'mum al-Bata'ihi]] who was instructed to prepare a letter of rapprochement between Cairo and Alamut. Upon learning of a plot to kill both al-Amir and al-Ma'mum, such ideas were disbanded, and severe restrictions on dealing with the Assassins were instead put in place.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 59, 108</ref>

===The next generation===

In 1124, Hassan-i Sabbah died, leaving a legacy that reverberated throughout the Middle East for centuries. He was succeeded at Alamut by [[Kiya Buzurg Ummid]].

The appointment of a new ''da'i'' at Alamut may have led the Seljuks to believe the Assassins were in a weakened position, and Ahmad Sanjar launched an attack on them in 1126. Led by Sanjar's vizier Mu'in ad-Din Kashi, the Seljuks again struck at [[Quhistan]] and also [[Nishapur]] in the east, and at [[Rudbar]] to the north. In the east, the Seljuks had minor successes at a village near [[Sabzevar]], where the population was destroyed, their leader leaping from the mosque's minaret, and at Turaythirth in Nishapur, where the attackers "killed many, took much booty, and then returned." At best, the results were not decisive, but superior to the routing the Seljuks received in the north, with one expedition driven back, losing their previous booty, and another having a Seljuk commander captured. In the end, the Isma'ili position was better than before the offensive. In the guise of a peace offering of two Arabian horses, Assassins gained the confidence of Mu'in ad-Din Kashi and killed him in 1127.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 64–65</ref>

At the same time, in Syria, a Persian named [[Bahram al-Da'i]], the successor to Abu Tahir al-Sa’igh who had been executed in Aleppo in 1113, appeared in Damascus reflecting cooperation between the Assassins and Toghtekin, including a joint operation against the Crusaders. Bahram, a Persian from Asterabad (present-day [[Gorgan]]), had lived in secrecy after the expulsion of the Assassins from Aleppo and was the nephew of the Assassin Abu Ibrahim al-Asterbadi who had been executed by Berkyaruq in 1101.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 52–53</ref> Bahram was most likely behind the murder of [[Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi|al-Bursuqi]] in 1126, whose assassination may have been ordered by the Seljuk sultan [[Mahmud II (Seljuq sultan)|Mahmud II]]. He later established a stronghold near [[Banias]]. During an attack on the Lebanese valley of [[Wadi al-Taym]], Bahram captured and tortured to death a local chieftain named Baraq ibn Jandal. In retaliation, his brother Dahhak ibn Jandal killed Bahram in 1127.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Two: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187|last=Runciman|first=Steven|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1952|pages=178–179}}</ref> So great was the fear and hatred of the Assassins that the messenger delivering Bahram's head and hands to Cairo was rewarded with a robe of honor. That fear was justified as caliph [[al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah]] was murdered at court in 1130 by ten Assassins.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=118–119}}

The Isma'ili response to the Seljuk invasion of 1126 was multi-faceted. In Rudbar, a new and powerful fortress was built at Maymundiz and new territories acquired. To the east, the Seljuk stronghold of [[Sistan]] was raided in 1129.<ref>Lewis (2003), p. 65</ref> That same year, Mahmud II, son of Muhammad I Tapar, and sultan of Isfahan, decided to sue for peace with Alamut.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of the Crusades: Volume One, The First Hundred Years|last=Baldwin, Marshall W., and Setton, Kenneth M|publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press|year=1969|page=175}}</ref> Unfortunately, the Isma'ili envoys to Mahmud II were lynched by an angry mob following their audience with the sultan. The demand by Kiya Buzurg Ummid for punishment of the perpetrators was refused. That prompted an Assassin attack on [[Qazvin]], resulting in the loss of 400 lives in addition to a Turkish emir. A counterattack on Alamut was inconclusive.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 65–66</ref>

In Syria, Assassin leader Bahram was replaced by another mysterious Persian named Isma'il al-'Ajami who, like Bahram, was supported by al-Mazdaghani, the pro-Isma'ili vizier to Toghtekin. After the death of Toghtekin in 1128, his son and successor Taj a-Mulk Buri began working to free Damascus of the Assassins, supported by his military commander [[Yusuf ibn Firuz]]. al-Mazdaghani was murdered and his head publicly displayed. The Damascenes turned on the Assassins, leaving "dogs yelping and quarreling over their limbs and corpses." At least 6000 Assassins died, and the rest, including Isma'il (who had turned Banias over to the Franks), fled to Frankish territory. Isma'il was killed in 1130, temporarily disabling the Assassins' Syrian mission. Nevertheless, Alamut organized a counterstrike, with two Persian Assassins disguised as Turkish soldiers striking down Buri in 1131. The Assassins were hacked to pieces by Buri's guards, but Buri died of his wounds the following year.<ref>''A History of the Crusades, Volume Two:  The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187'', p. 179</ref><ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 106–107</ref>

Mahmud II died in 1131 and his brother [[Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud]] (Mas'ud) was recognized as successor by Abbasid caliph [[al-Mustarshid]].<ref>A History of the Crusades:  The First Hundred Years, p. 456</ref> The succession was contested by Mahmud's son and other brothers, and al-Mustarshid was drawn into the conflict. The caliph al-Mustarshid was taken prisoner by Seljuk forces in 1135 near [[Hamadan]] and pardoned with the proviso that he abdicate. Left in his tent studying the Quran, he was murdered by a large group of Assassins. Some suspected Mas'ud and even Ahmad Sanjar with complicity, but the chronicles of contemporaneous Arab historians [[Ali ibn al-Athir|ibn al-Athir]] and [[ibn al-Jawzi]] do not bear that out. The Isma'ilis commemorated the caliph's death with seven days and nights of celebration.<ref>Lewis (2003), p. 66</ref>

The reign of Buzurg Ummid ended with his death in 1138, showing a relatively small list of assassinations.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=108}} He was succeeded by his son [[Muhammad Buzurg Ummid]], sometimes referred to as Kiya Muhammad.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 67–68</ref>

The Abbasids' celebration of the death of the Assassin leader Buzurg Ummid was short-lived. The son and successor of the last high-profile victim of the Assassins, al-Mustarshid, was [[Ar-Rashid (1109–1138)|ar-Rashid]]. Ar-Rashid was deposed by his uncle [[al-Muqtafi]] in 1136 and, while recovering from an illness in Isfahan, was murdered by Assassins. The addition of a second caliph to the Assassins' so-called "role of honor" of victims again resulted in a week of celebration at Alamut. Another significant success was the assassination of the son of Mahmud II, Da'ud, who ruled in [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Jibal]]. Da'ud was felled by four Assassins in [[Tabriz]] in 1143, rumored to have been dispatched by [[Imad ad-Din Zengi|Zengi]], atabeg of Mosul.<ref>Lewis (2003), p. 68</ref><ref>''A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years'', pp. 168–169</ref>

The decades after the assassination of al-Mustarshid showed an expansion of Assassin castles in [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range|Jabal Bahrā']], to the northwest of their Syrian fortresses in [[Harim Mountains|Jabal as-Summaq]]. In 1132, Saif al-Mulk ibn Amrun, emir of al-Kahf, recovered the fortress of [[al-Qadmus]] from the Franks, known to them as ''Bokabeis.'' He then sold the fortress to the Assassins in 1133. This was followed by the ceding of [[al-Kahf Castle]] itself to Assassin control in 1138 by Saif's son Musa in the midst of a succession struggle. These were followed by the acquisition of the castle at [[Masyaf Castle|Masyaf]] in 1140 and of [[Khawabi|Qala'at al-Khawabi]], known to the Crusaders as ''La Coible'', in 1141.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=119}}

Relatively little is recorded concerning Assassin activity during this period until the [[Second Crusade]]. In 1149, an Assassin named Ali ibn-Wafa allied with [[Raymond of Poitiers]], son of [[William IX, Duke of Aquitaine|William IX of Aquitaine]], to defend the borders of the Principality of Antioch against [[Zengid dynasty|Zengid]] expansion. The forces met at the [[battle of Inab]], with Zengi's son and heir [[Nur ad-Din (died 1174)|Nur ad-Din]] defeating the Franks, killing both Raymond and ibn-Wafa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|author-link =Christopher Tyerman| publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2006|page=344}}</ref> Nur ad-Din would again foil the Assassins in 1158, incorporating a castle at [[Shaizar#Hashashin, Zengid and Mamluk periods (1158-1260)|Shaizar]] that they had occupied after the [[1157 Hama earthquake|1157 earthquake]] into his territory. Two assassinations are known from this period. In a revenge attack, Dahhak ibn Jandal, the Wadi al-Taym chieftain who had killed Assassin ''da'i'' Bahram in 1127, died from an Assassin's blade in 1149. A few years later in 1152, possibly in retaliation to the establishment of the [[Knights Templar]] at [[Tartus]], [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II]], count of Tripoli, was killed by Assassins. This marked the first known Christian victim.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=120}}

===Hassan II and Rashid ad-Din Sinan===

The fourteen known assassinations during the reign of Kiya Muhammad was a far cry from the tally of his predecessors, representing a significant decline in the power of the Isma'ilis. This was exemplified by the governors of Mazandaran and of Rayy who were said to have built towers out of Isma'ili skulls.

In the middle of [[Ramadan]] in 559 AH, Hassan II gathered his followers  and announced to "[[jinn]], men and angels" that the [[Occultation (Islam)|Hidden Imam]] had freed them "from the burden of the rules of Holy Law". With that, the assembled took part in a ritual violation of Sharia, a banquet with wine, in violation of the Ramadan fast, with their backs turned towards Medina.<ref name=Lewis-1967-72>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Bernard |title=The Assassins : A Radical Sect in Islam |page=72 |publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1967}}</ref> Observance of Islamic rites (fasting, salat prayer, etc.) was punishable by the utmost severity. (According to Shīʿa hadiths, when the Hidden Imam/mahdi reappears, "he will bring a new religion, a new book and a new law").<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/meet-shia-islams-latest-claimant-of-messiah/10959614 |title=Who is Ahmad al-Hassan al-Yamani, and why do so many Shīʿas think he is the promised messiah? |author=Mahmoud Pargoo |date=April 2019 |agency=ABC |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-date=1 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601024146/https://www.abc.net.au/religion/meet-shia-islams-latest-claimant-of-messiah/10959614 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Resistance was nonetheless deep, and Hasan was stabbed to death by his own brother-in-law.<ref name=JPFAiI2011:53>[[#JPFAiI2011|Filiu, ''Apocalypse in Islam '', 2011]]: p. 53</ref>

Hassan II shifted the focus of his followers from the exoteric to the esoteric ([[Batiniyya|batin]]). He abrogated the exoteric practice of [[Sharia]] and stressed on the esoteric ([[Batiniyya|batini]]) side of the laws. And "while outwardly he was known as the grandson of Buzurgumid", in this esoteric reality, Lewis writes, Hasan claimed "he was the [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Imam of the time]]" (the last Imam of Shia Islam before the end of the world).<ref name=Lewis-1967-74>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Bernard |title=The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam |page=74 |publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1967}}</ref> The impact of these changes on Isma'ili life and politics were vast and continued after Hassan II's death in 1166 by his son [[Nur al-Din Muhammad II|Nūr al-Dīn Muhammad]], known as the Imam Muhammad II, who ruled from 1166 to 1210. It is in this context and the changes in the Muslim world brought about by the disintegration of the Seljuk empire that a new chief ''da'i'' of the Assassins was thrust: [[Rashid ad-Din Sinan]], referred to as Sinān.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 71–76.</ref>

Rashid ad-Din Sinan, an alchemist and schoolmaster, was dispatched to Syria by Hassan II as a messenger of his Islamic views and to continue the Assassins' mission. Known as the greatest of the Assassin chiefs, Sinān first made headquarters at [[al-Kahf Castle]] and then the fortress of [[Masyaf Castle|Masyaf]]. At al-Kahf, he worked with chief ''da'i'' Abu-Muhammad, who was succeeded at his death by Khwaja Ali ibn Mas'ud without authority from Alamut. Khwaja was murdered by Abu-Muhammad's nephew Abu Mansur, causing Alamut to reassert control.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 110–111</ref> After seven years at al-Kahf, Sinān assumed that role, operating independently of and feared by Alamut, relocating the capital to Masyaf. Among his first tasks were the refurbishing of the fortress of [[Al-Rusafa, Syria|ar-Rusafa]] and of [[Khawabi|Qala'at al-Khawabi]], constructing a tower at the citadel of the latter. Sinān also captured the castle of [[Aleika Castle|al-'Ullaiqah]] at [[Aliqa|Aleika]], near Tartus.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=120–121}}

One of the first orders of business that Sinān confronted was the continuing threat from [[Nur ad-Din (died 1174)|Nur ad-Din]] as well as the Knights Templar's presence at Tartus. In 1173, Sinān proposed to [[Amalric of Jerusalem]] an alliance against Nur ad-Din in exchange for the cancellation of the tribute imposed upon Assassin villages near Tartus. The Assassin envoys to the king were ambushed and slain by a Templar knight named Walter du Mesnil near Tripoli while returning from the negotiations, an act apparently sanctioned by the Templar Grand Master [[Odo de St Amand|Odo de Saint Amand]]. Amalric demanded that the knight be surrendered, but Odo refused, claiming only the pope had the authority to punish du Mesnil. Amalric had du Mesnil kidnapped and imprisoned at Tyre. Sinān accepted the king's apology, assured that justice had been done. The point of the alliance became moot as both Nur ad-Din and Amalric died of natural causes soon thereafter.<ref>'' A History of the Crusades, Volume Two:  The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187'', p. 397</ref>

These developments could not have been better for [[Saladin]] who wished to expand beyond Egypt into Jerusalem and Syria, first taking [[Saladin#Conquest of Damascus|Damascus]]. With the Kingdom of Jerusalem being led by the 13-year old leperous [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] and Syria by the 11-year old [[as-Salih Ismail al-Malik]], son of Nur ad-Din, he continued his [[Saladin#Further conquests in Syria|campaign in Syria]], moving against Aleppo. While besieging Aleppo in late 1174 or early 1175, the camp of Saladin was infiltrated by Assassins sent by Sinān and As-Salih's regent Gümüshtigin. Nasih al-Din Khumartekin, emir of [[Abu Qubays, Syria|Abu Qubays]], was killed in the attack which left Saladin unscathed. The next year, after taking [[Azaz]], the  Assassins again struck, wounding Saladin. Gümüshtigin was again believed to be complicit in the assassination attempt. Turning his attention to Aleppo, the city was soon conquered,d and Saladin allowed as-Salih and Gümüshtigin to continue to rule, but under his sovereignty.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=123}}<ref>''A History of the Crusades, Volume Two:  The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187'', p. 407</ref> Saladin then turned his attention back to the Assassins, besieging [[Masyaf]] in 1176. Failing to capture the stronghold, he settled for a truce. Accounts of a mystical encounter between Saladin and Sinān have been offered :

Saladin had his guards supplied with link lights and had chalk and cinders strewed around his tent outside [[Masyaf]]—which he was besieging—to detect any footsteps by the Assassins.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Lane-Poole|first=Stanley|title=Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |year=1906|location=London}}</ref> According to this version, one night Saladin's guards noticed a spark glowing down the hill of Masyaf and then vanishing among the Ayyubid tents. Presently, Saladin awoke to find a figure leaving the tent. He saw that the lamps were displaced and beside his bed laid hot scones of the shape peculiar to the Assassins with a note at the top pinned by a poisoned dagger. The note threatened that he would be killed if he did not withdraw from his assault. Saladin gave a loud cry, exclaiming that Sinan himself was the figure that had left the tent.<ref name="Daftary13" /><ref name=":1" />

Another version claims that Saladin hastily withdrew his troops from Masyaf because they were urgently needed to fend off a Crusader force in the vicinity of [[Mount Lebanon]]. In reality, Saladin sought to form an alliance with Sinan and his Assassins, consequently depriving the Crusaders of a potent ally against him.<ref name=":1" /> Viewing the expulsion of the Crusaders as a mutual benefit and priority, Saladin and Sinan maintained cooperative relations afterwards, the latter dispatching contingents of his forces to bolster Saladin's army in a number of decisive subsequent battlefronts.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Willy|first=Peter|title=The Castles of the Assassins|publisher=Craven Street Books|year=2001}}</ref>

By 1177, the conflict between Sinān and as-Salih continued with the assassination of Shihab ad-Din abu-Salih, vizier to both as-Salih and Nur ad-Din. A letter from as-Salih to Sinān requesting the murder was found to be a forgery by Gümüshtigin, causing his removal. As-Salih seized the village of al-Hajira from the Assassins, and in response Sinān's followers burned the marketplace in Aleppo.<ref>Lewis (2003), p. 117</ref>

In 1190, [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella I]] was Queen of Jerusalem and the [[Third Crusade]] had just begun. The daughter of Amalric, she married her first husband [[Conrad of Montferrat]], who became king by virtue of marriage, not yet crowned. Conrad was of royal blood, the cousin of Holy Roman Emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] and [[Louis VII of France]]. Conrad had been in charge of Tyre during the [[Siege of Tyre (1187)|siege of Tyre]] in 1187 launched by Saladin, successfully defending the city. [[Guy of Lusignan]], married to Isabella's half-sister [[Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem|Sybilla of Jerusalem]], was king of Jerusalem by right of marriage and had been captured by Saladin during the [[battle of Hattin]] in that same year, 1187. When Guy was released in 1188, he was denied entry to Tyre by Conrad and launched the [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|siege of Acre]] in 1189. Queen Sybilla died of an epidemic sweeping her husband's military camp in 1190, negating Guy's claim to the throne and resulting in Isabella becoming queen.

Assassins disguised as Christian monks had infiltrated the bishopric of Tyre, gaining the confidence of both the archbishop [[Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre|Joscius]] and Conrad of Montferrat. There in 1192, they stabbed Conrad to death. The surviving Assassin is reputed to have named [[Richard I of England]] as the instigator, who had much to gain as demonstrated by the rapidity at which the widow married [[Henry II, Count of Champagne|Henry II of Champagne]]. That account is disputed by ibn al-Athir<ref>Richards, D. S., Editor (2007). ''The Annals of the Saljuq Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh ibn al-Athir, 1146–1193''. Routledge Publishing. pp. 396–397.</ref> who names Saladin in a plot with Sinān to kill both Conrad and Richard. Richard I was captured by [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]], and held by [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], who had become Holy Roman Emperor in 1191, accused of murder. Sinān wrote to Leopold V absolving Richard I of complicity in the plot. Regardless, Richard I was released in 1194 after England paid his ransom and the murder remains unsolved.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=126–127}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of the Crusades: Volume Two, The Later Crusades 1187–1311, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison|last=Wolff, Robert L., and Hazard, H. W.|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1977|page=80}}</ref> Adding to the continued cold case is the belief by modern historians that Sinan's letter to Leopold V is a forgery, written by members of Richard I's administration.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/846946318|title=Letters from the East : Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th centuries|date=2013|publisher=Ashgate|others=Barber, Malcolm., Bate, Keith|isbn=978-1-4724-1395-6|location=Farnham, Surrey|page=92|oclc=846946318|access-date=2020-06-07|archive-date=2023-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204025324/https://search.worldcat.org/title/846946318|url-status=live}}</ref>

Conrad was Sinān's last assassination. The great Assassin [[Rashid ad-Din Sinan]], the Old Man of the Mountain, died in 1193, the same year that claimed Saladin. He died of natural causes at al-Kahf Castle and was buried at [[Salamiyah]], which had been a secret hub of Isma'ili activity in the 9th and 10th centuries. His successor was Nasr al-'Ajami, under the control of Alamut, who reportedly met with emperor Henry VI in 1194.<ref>''A History of the Crusades: Volume Two, The Later Crusades 1187–1311'', p. 528</ref> Later successors through 1227 included Kamāl ad-Din al-Hasan and Majd ad-Din, again under the control of Alamut.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=127}} Saladin left his [[Ayyubid dynasty]] under his sons [[al-Aziz Uthman]], sultan of Egypt, [[al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din]], emir of Damascus, and [[az-Zahir Ghazi]], emir of Aleppo. Al-Aziz died soon thereafter, replaced by Saladin's brother [[al-Adil I]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual|last=Bosworth|first=Clifford E.|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1996|pages=71–75}}</ref>

===13th century===

In 1210, Muhammad III died and his son [[Hassan III of Alamut|Jalāl al-Din Hasan]] (known as Hassan III) became Imam of the Isma'ili State. His first actions included the return to the Islamic orthodoxy by practising [[Taqiya|Taqiyyah]] to ensure safety of the Ismailis in the hostile environment. He claimed allegiance to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] to protect himself and his followers from further persecution. He had a Sunni mother and four Sunni wives. Hassan III recognized the Abbasid caliph [[al-Nasir]] who in turn granted a diploma of investiture. The Alamuts had a previous history with al-Nasir, supplying Assassins to attack a Kwarezm representative of shah [[Ala ad-Din Tekish]], but that was more of an action of convenience than formal alliance. Maintaining ties to western Christian influences, the Alamuts became tributaries to the [[Knights Hospitaller]] beginning at the Isma'ili stronghold [[Abu Qubays, Syria|Abu Qubays]], near [[Margat]].{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=127–128}}

The count of Tripoli in 1213 was [[Bohemond IV of Antioch|Bohemond IV]], the fourth [[prince of Antioch]] of that name. That year his 18-year-old son Raymond, namesake of his grandfather, was murdered by the Assassins under Nasr al-'Ajami while at church in [[Tartus]]. Suspecting both Assassin and Hospitaller involvement, Bohemond and the Knights Templar laid siege to [[Khawabi|Qala'at al-Khawabi]], an Isma'ili stronghold near Tartus, Appealing to the Ayyubids for help, az-Zahir Ghazi dispatched a relief force from Aleppo. His forces were nearly destroyed at Jabal Bahra. Az-Zahir's uncle al-Adil I, emir of Damascus, responded and the Franks ended the siege by 1216.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades|last=Runciman|first=Steven|year=1951|page=138}}</ref>{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=128}} Bohemond IV would again fight the Ayyubids in the [[Fifth Crusade]].

Majd ad-Din was the new chief ''da'i'' in Syria in 1220, assuming that role from Kamāl ad-Din al-Hasan of whom very little is known. At that time the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk sultanate of Rûm]] paid an annual tribute to Alamut, and Majd ad-Din notified the sultan [[Kayqubad I]] that henceforth the tribute was to be paid to him. Kayqubad I requested clarification from Hassan III who informed him that the monies had indeed been assigned to Syria.<ref name="The Assassins p. 120">Lewis (2003), p. 120</ref>

Hassan III died in 1221, likely from poisoning. He was succeeded by his 9-year-old son Imam [[Muhammad III of Alamut|'Alā ad-Din Muhammad]], known as Muhammad III, and was the penultimate Isma'ili ruler of Alamut before the Mongol conquest. Because of his age, Hassan's vizier served as regent to the young Imam, and put Hassan's wives and sister to death for the suspected poisoning. Muhammad III reversed the Sunni course his father had set, returning to Shi'ite orthodoxy. His attempts to accommodate the advancing Mongols failed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-iii-ismaili-history|title=Nezāri Isma'ilism of the Alamut Period, Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=2020-01-27|archive-date=2020-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130212229/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-iii-ismaili-history|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1225, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] was Holy Roman Emperor, a position his father Henry VI had held until 1197. He had committed to prosecuting the [[Sixth Crusade]] and married the heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, [[Isabella II of Jerusalem|Isabella II]]. The next year, the once and future king sent envoys to Majd ad-Din with significant gifts for the imam to ensure his safe passage. [[Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia|Khwarezm]] had collapsed under the Mongols, but many of the Kwarezmians still operated as mercenaries in northern Iraq. Under the pretense that the road to Alamut was unsafe due to these mercenaries, Majd ad-Din kept the gifts for himself, and provided the safe passage. As a precaution, Majd ad-Din informed [[al-Aziz Muhammad]], emir of Aleppo and son of az-Zahir Ghazi, of the emperor's embassy. In the end, Frederick did not complete that trip to the Holy Land due to illness, being excommunicated in 1227. The Knights Hospitaller were not as accommodating as Alamut, demanding their share of the tribute. When Majd ad-Din refused, the Hospitallers attacked and carried off the majority of the booty.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|pp=128–129}}<ref>''A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades''. pp. 175–178</ref> Majd ad-Din was succeeded by Sirāj ad-Din Muzaffa ibn al-Husain in 1227, serving as chief ''da'i'' until 1239.{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=127}}

Taj ad-Din Abu'l-Futūh ibn Muhammad was chief ''da'i'' in Syria in 1239, succeeding Sirāj ad-Din Muzaffa. At this point, the Assassins were an integral part of Syrian politics. The Arab historian [[Ibn Wasil]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/search?s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-1&search-go=&s.q=ibn+wasil|title=Encyclopedia of Islam, First Edition (1913–1936)|access-date=2020-01-28|archive-date=2020-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314073252/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/search?s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-1&search-go=&s.q=ibn+wasil|url-status=live}}</ref> had a friendship with Taj ad-Din and writes of Badr ad-Din, ''qadi'' of [[Sinjar]], who sought refuge with Taj ad-Din to escape the wrath of Egyptian Ayyubid ruler [[as-Salih Ayyub]]. Taj ad-Din served until at least 1249 when he was replaced by Radi ad-Din Abu'l-Ma'āli.<ref name="The Assassins p. 120"/>

In that same year, [[Louis IX of France]] embarked on the [[Seventh Crusade]] in Egypt. He captured the port of [[Damietta]] from the aging al-Salih Ayyub which he refused to turn over to [[Conrad IV of Germany|Conrad II]], who had inherited the throne of Jerusalem from his parents Frederick II and Isabella II. The Frankish Crusaders were soundly defeated by [[Baibars|Abu Futuh Baibars]], then a commander in the Egyptian army, at the [[Battle of Mansurah (1250)|battle of al-Mansurah]] in 1250. Saint Louis, as Louis IX was known, was captured by the Egyptians and, after a handsome reward was paid, spent four years in Acre, Caesarea and Jaffa. One of the captives with Louis was [[Jean de Joinville]],<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Joinville,_Jean,_Sire_de |volume=15 |short=x}}</ref> biographer of the king, who reported the interaction of the monarch with the Assassins. While at Acre, emissaries of Radi ad-Din Abu'l-Ma'āli met with him, demanding a tribute be paid to their chief "as the emperor of Germany, the king of Hungary, the sultan of Egypt and the others because they know well they can only live as long as it please him." Alternately, the king could pay the tribute the Assassins paid the Templars and Hospitallers. Later the king's Arabic interpreter Yves the Breton met personally with Radi ad-Din and discussed the respective beliefs. Afterwards, the chief ''da'i'' went riding, with his valet proclaiming: "Make way before him who bears the death of kings in his hands!"{{sfn|Lewis|1969|p=129}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WedLord.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=21&division=div2|title=Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, Chapter III.4|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214165119/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WedLord.sgm&images=images%2Fmodeng&data=%2Ftexts%2Fenglish%2Fmodeng%2Fparsed&tag=public&part=21&division=div2|archive-date=2011-02-14|access-date=2020-12-22}}</ref>

The Egyptian victory at al-Mansurah led to the establishment of the [[Mamluk|Mamluk dynasty]] in Egypt. Muhammad III was murdered in 1255 and replaced by his son [[Rukn al-Din Khurshah]], the last Imam to rule Alamut. Najm ad-Din later became chief ''da'i'' of the Assassins in Syria, the last to be associated with Alamut. Louis IX returned to north Africa during the [[Eighth Crusade]] where he died of natural causes in Tunis.<ref>''A History of the Crusades, Volume Two:  The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187'', p. 749</ref>

===Downfall and aftermath===
[[File:Siege of Alamut (1256).jpeg|thumb|upright|View of the city of Alamut being besieged. 1438 depiction by the [[Tarikh-i Jahangushay]]]]
The Assassins suffered a significant blow at the hands of the [[Mongol Empire]] during the well-documented invasion of [[Khwarazm]]. A decree was handed over to the Mongol commander [[Kitbuqa]] who began to assault several Assassin fortresses in 1253 before [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu's]] advance in 1256. During the [[siege of Maymun-Diz]], the last Ismaili Imam capitulated to the Mongols. The Imam ordered his subordinates to surrender and demolish their fortresses likewise. The subsequent capitulation of the symbolic stronghold of Alamut marked the end of the Nizari state in Persia. [[Lambsar Castle|Lambsar]] fell in 1257, [[Masyaf Castle|Masyaf]] in 1267. The Assassins recaptured and held Alamut for a few months in 1275, but they were crushed and their political power was lost forever. [[Rukn al-Din Khurshah]] was put to death shortly thereafter.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lewis (2003), pp.&nbsp;121–122</ref> Some strongholds continued to resist for many years, notably [[Gerdkuh]].

Though the Mongol massacre at Alamut was widely interpreted to be the end of [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] influence in the region, various sources say that the Isma'ilis' political influence continued. In 1275, a son of Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah managed to recapture Alamut, though only for a few years. Isma'ili political activity in the region also seems to have continued under the leadership of Sultan Muhammad b. Jahangir and his son, until the latter's execution in 1597.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Virani|first=Shafique|title=The Eagle Returns: Evidence of Continued Isma'ili Activity at Alamut and in the South Caspian Region following the Mongol Conquests|url=https://www.academia.edu/37219410|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=2003|volume=123|issue=2|pages=351–370|doi=10.2307/3217688|jstor=3217688|access-date=2020-11-19|archive-date=2022-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922162139/https://www.academia.edu/37219410|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Syria, the Assassins joined with other Muslim groups to oppose the Mongols and courted the Mamluks and [[Baibars]]. Baibars entered into a truce with the Hospitallers in 1266 and stipulated that the tribute paid by the Assassins be halted. The tribute once paid to the Franks was to come instead to Cairo. As early as 1260, Baibars' biographer [[ibn Abd al-Zahir]] reported that he was granting Assassin lands in ''[[iqta']]'' to his generals, and in 1265 began to tax the "gifts" the Assassins received from various princes that apparently included Louis IX of France, [[Rudolf I of Germany|Rudolph I of Germany]], [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alphonso X of Castile]], and the [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulid]] sultan of Yemen<ref>''The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual,'' p.&nbsp;108</ref> al-Muzaffar Yusuf. The Syrian branch of the Assassins was taken over by Baibars by 1270, recognizing the threat of an independent force with his sultanate.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Najm ad-Din was replaced by Baibars' son-in-law Sarim al-Din Mubarak, governor of al-'Ullaiqah in 1270. Sarim was soon deposed and sent as a prisoner to Cairo, and Najm ad-Din was restored at chief ''da'i'' at Masyaf. His son Shams ad-Din joined him in service, but owing a tribute to the sultan. The next year, in the midst of the [[Siege of Tripoli (1271)|siege of Tripoli]], two Assassins were sent by [[Bohemond VI of Antioch]], then Count of Tripoli, to murder his attacker Baibars. Shams ad-Din was arrested in the plot, but released when his father argued his case. The Isma'ili leaders were eventually implicated and agreed to surrender their castles and live at Baibars' court. Najm ad-Din died in Cairo in 1274.<ref>Lewis (2003), p.&nbsp;122</ref>
[[File:Gustave Dore Crusades Edward I kills his attempted assassin.jpg|thumb|[[Edward I of England|Edward I, King of England]] thwarts an attempt on his life by an Assassin and kills the attacker. The assassin likely was sent by the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] Sultan [[Baibars]], in order to remove his opposition to a 10-year truce with the [[Christianity in the Middle Ages|Christian states]] at [[Jerusalem]]. 19th-century depiction by [[Gustave Doré]]]]
In 1271, Baibars' forces seized [[Aleika Castle|al-'Ullaiqah]] and [[Al-Rusafa, Syria|ar-Rusafa]], after taking Masyaf the year before. Later in the year, Shams ad-Din surrendered and was deported to Egypt. [[Khawabi|Qala'at al-Khawabi]] fell that year and within two years [[Gerdkuh]] and all of the Assassin fortresses were held by the sultan. With the Assassins under his control, Baibars was able to use them to counter the forces arriving in the [[Lord Edward's crusade|Ninth Crusade]]. The sultan threatened Bohemond VI, and the Assassins attacked future king [[Edward I of England]] unsuccessfully with Edward killing the Assassin.<ref name="The Assassins pg. 123">Lewis (2003), p.&nbsp;123</ref>

The last known victim of the Assassins was [[Philip of Montfort, Lord of Tyre|Philip of Montfort]], lord of Tyre, long an enemy of Baibars. Philip helped negotiate the truce following the capture of Damietta by Louis IX and had lost the castle at [[Toron]] to Baibars in 1266. Despite his advanced age, Philip was murdered by Baibars' Assassins in 1270.<ref name="The Assassins pg. 123"/>

The last of the Assassin strongholds was [[Al-Kahf Castle|al-Kahf]] in the [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range|Syrian coastal mountains]] in 1273. The [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] reportedly continued to use the services of the remaining Assassins, and the 14th-century scholar [[ibn Battuta]] reported their fixed rate of pay per murder, with his children getting the fee if the Assassin did not survive the attack. There are, nevertheless, no recorded instances of Assassin activity after the later 13th century. They unremarkably settled near [[Salamiyah]], with a still-large Isma'ili population that recognizes the [[Aga Khan]] as their Imam.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp.&nbsp;123–124</ref>