Editing Pearl Primus (section)

==Career==

Primus began her formal study of dance with the New Dance Group in 1941, she was the group's first black student.  She trained under the group's founders, [[Jane Dudley]], [[Sophie Maslow]], and William Bates. Through this organization, Primus not only gained a foundation for her contemporary technique, but she learned about artistic activism.  The New Dance Group's motto was "dance is a weapon of the class struggle", they instilled the belief that dance is a conscious art and those who view it should be impacted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dancetimepublications.com/dance-culture-editorial/the-new-dance-group-transforming-individuals-and-community/|title=The New Dance Group: Transforming Individuals and Community|website=dancetimepublications.com|access-date=2019-12-08}}</ref>  The organization trained dancers like Primus to be aware of the political and social climate of their time.  Primus' exposure to this newfound form of activism encouraged the themes of social protest found in her works.

Primus continued to develop her modern dance foundation with several pioneers such [[Martha Graham]], [[Charles Weidman]], [[Ismay Andrews]], and [[Asadata Dafora]].{{sfn|Heard|1999|p=181}} Amongst these influencers, Dafora's influence on Primus has been largely ignored by historians and unmentioned by Primus.{{sfn|Heard|1999|p=181–184}} However, Marcia Ethel Heard notes that he instilled a sense of African pride in his students and asserts that he taught Primus about African dance and culture.{{sfn|Heard|1999|p=181–184}} Dafora began a movement of African cultural pride which provided Primus with collaborators and piqued public interest in her work.{{sfn|Heard|1999|p=184–187}}

Primus explored African culture and dance by consulting family, books, articles, pictures, and museums. After six months of thorough research, she completed her first major composition entitled ''African Ceremonial''.  This piece served as an introduction to her swelling interest in Black heritage.  She based the dance on a legend from the Belgian Congo, about a priest who performed a fertility ritual until he collapsed and vanished. This thoroughly researched composition was presented along with ''Strange Fruit'', ''Rock Daniel'', and ''Hard Time Blues'', at her debut performance on February 14, 1943, at the 92nd Street [[YMHA]]. Her performance was so outstanding that [[John Martin (dance critic)|John Martin]], a major dance critic from ''[[The New York Times]]'' stated that "she was entitled to a company of her own."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1943/02/21/archives/the-dance-five-artists-second-annual-joint-recital-project-of-the.html|title=THE DANCE: FIVE ARTISTS; Second Annual Joint Recital Project of the Y.M.H.A. -- Week's Programs|last=Martin|first=John|date=1943-02-21|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=2019-12-08|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> John Martin admired her stage presence, energy, and technique. He described her as a remarkable and distinguished artist.[[File:Langston Hughes by Carl Van Vechten 1936.jpg|thumb|right|Primus choreographed "[[The Negro Speaks of Rivers]]" by [[Langston Hughes]] (here, photographed by [[Carl Van Vechten]] in 1936)]]
After gaining much praise, Primus' next performances began in April 1943, as an entertainer at the famous racially integrated night club, [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/16/nyregion/16book.html?mtrref=www.bing.com&gwh=65D61A810C484EE3466A6F229F87CB60&gwt=pay&assetType=REGIWALL Cafe Society Downtown].  For 10 months her energy and emotion commanded the stage, along with her stunning five-foot-high jumps.  She continued to amaze audiences when she performed at the Negro Freedom Rally, in June 1943, at [[Madison Square Garden]] before an audience of 20,000 people.  [[File:Martha Graham 1948.jpg|thumb|right|Primus studied under [[Martha Graham]] (here, photographed by [[Yousuf Karsh]] in 1948)]]
{{sfn|Heard|1999|p=184–187}} In December 1943, Primus appeared as in Dafora's African Dance Festival at [[Carnegie Hall]] before [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and [[Mary McLeod Bethune]].{{sfn|Heard|1999|p=183–187}}  Within the same month, Primus, who was primarily a solo artist, recruited other dances and formed the Primus Company.  The company performed in concerts at the [[Roxy Theatre (New York City)|Roxy Theatre]]. ''African Ceremonial'' was re-envisioned for the group's performance. At that time, Primus' African choreography could be termed interpretive, based on the research she conducted and her perception of her findings.  Primus would choreograph based on imagining the movement of something she observed, such as an African sculpture.

Over time Primus developed an interest in the way dance represented the lives of people in a culture. Primus was also intrigued by the relationship between the African-slave diaspora and different types of cultural dances.<ref name="Pearl Primus">{{Cite web|url=https://danceinteractive.jacobspillow.org/themes-essays/african-diaspora/pearl-primus/|title=Pearl Primus|website=Jacob's Pillow Dance Interactive|language=en|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref>  With an enlarged range of interest, Primus began to conduct some field studies.  In the summer of 1944, Primus visited the Deep South to research the culture and dances of Southern blacks.  She posed as a migrant worker with the aim "to know [her] own people where they are suffering the most."<ref name="Dance History: Pearl Primus">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dance-teacher.com/pearl-primus-2392285794.html|title=Dance History: Pearl Primus|date=2009-03-16|website=Dance Teacher|language=en|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref> She observed and participated in the daily lives of black impoverished sharecroppers.  Primus fully engulfed herself in the experience by attending over seventy churches and picking cotton with the sharecroppers.  After her field research, Primus was able to establish new choreography while continuously developing some of her former innovative works.

Primus made her Broadway debut on October 4, 1944, at the Bealson Theatre. Here she performed a work that was choreographed to [[Langston Hughes|Langston Hughes']] poem "[[The Negro Speaks of Rivers]]".  The poem addressed the inequalities and injustices imposed on the black community, while introducing comparisons between the ancestry of Black people to four major rivers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://betterboys.wordpress.com/2011/03/09/langston-hughes-the-negro-speaks-of-rivers/|title=Langston Hughes, "The Negro Speaks of Rivers"|last=ericagreil|date=2011-03-09|website=Blog@BBF|language=en|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref>  Primus' dance to this poem boldly acknowledged the strength and wisdom of African Americans through periods of freedom and enslavement.

In 1945 she continued to develop ''Strange Fruit'' (1945) one of the pieces she debuted in 1943.  This dance was based on the poem by Lewis Allan about a lynching. When analyzing the dance, one can see that the performer is portraying a female character's reaction after witnessing a lynching.  Many viewers wondered about the race of the anguished woman, but Primus declared that the woman was a member of the lynch mob.  "The dance begins as the last person begins to leave the lynching ground and the horror of what she has seen grips her, and she has to do a smooth, fast roll away from that burning flesh."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nypl.org/blog/2016/08/29/pearl-primus-strange-fruit|title=Pearl Primus in "Strange Fruit"|website=The New York Public Library|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref>   Primus depicts the aftermath of the lynching through the remorse of the woman, after she realized the horrible nature of the act.  The intention of this piece introduces the idea that even a lynch mob can show penitence.

Primus' work continued to push boundaries as she re-developed another one of her debut pieces, ''Hard Time Blues'' (1945).  She choreographed this dance to a song by folk singer [[Josh White]]. The choreography for this piece, which was made in protest of sharecropping, truly represented Primus' movement style. This piece was embellished with athletic jumps that defied gravity and amazed audiences. But Primus explained that jumping does not always symbolize joy.  In this case, her powerful jumping symbolized the defiance, desperation, and anger of the sharecroppers which she experienced first-hand during her field studies. Primus believed that when observing the jumps in the choreography, it was important to pay attention to "the shape the body takes in the air".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Borzoi Book of Modern Dance|last=Lloyd|first=Margaret|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf, Znc.|year=1949|isbn=0-87127-275-X|location=New York}}</ref> For Hard Time Blues, the shape of the body was a predictor of the emotional state of the poor sharecroppers.

In 1946, Primus continued her journey on Broadway was invited to appear in the revival of the Broadway production ''[[Show Boat]]'', choreographed by [[Helen Tamiris]]. Then, she was asked to choreograph a Broadway production called ''Calypso'' whose title became ''Caribbean Carnival''. She also appeared at the [[Chicago Theatre]] in the 1947 revival of the ''[[Emperor Jones]]'' in the "Witch Doctor" role that [[Hemsley Winfield]] made famous.
[[File:Charles S. Johnson.jpg|thumb|right|[[Charles S. Johnson]] funded research into dance in Africa by Primus]]
In 1947 Primus joined [[Jacob's Pillow Dance|Jacob's Pillow]] and began her own program in which she reprised some of her works such as ''Hard Time Blues. '' In her program she also presented Three Spirituals entitled "Motherless Child", "Goin' to tell God all my Trouble", and "In the Great Gettin'-up Mornin'."  These pieces were rooted in Primus' experience with black southern culture.  This cannon of Negro spirituals, also referred to as "[[sorrow songs]]" branched from slave culture, which at the time was a prominent source of inspiration for many contemporary dance artists.<ref name="Pearl Primus"/>

Following this show and many subsequent recitals, Primus toured the nation with The Primus Company. While on the university and college circuit, Primus performed at [[Fisk University]] in 1948, where Dr. [[Charles S. Johnson]], a member of [[Rosenwald Foundation]] board, was president. He was so impressed with the power of her interpretive African dances that he asked her when she had last visited Africa. She replied that she had never done so. She then became the last recipient of the major Rosenwald fellowships and received the most money ($4000) ever given.  After receiving this funding, Primus originally proposed to develop a dance project based on [[James Weldon Johnson]]s work "God's Trombones.  But instead she decided to conduct an 18-month research and study tour of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Angola]], [[Cameroons]], [[Liberia]], [[Senegal]] and the [[Belgian Congo]].{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}  On December 5, 1948, Primus closed a successful return engagement at the [[Café Society]] nightclub in [[New York City]] before heading off to Africa.<ref>
{{cite news| title = The Dance: Chitchat| newspaper = The New York Times| page = X10| date = December 5, 1948}}</ref>

Primus was so well accepted in the communities in her study tour that she was told that the ancestral spirit of an African dancer had manifested in her. The [[Oba (ruler)|Oni]] and people of Ife, Nigeria, felt that she was so much a part of their community that they initiated her into their commonwealth and affectionately conferred on her the title "Omowale" — the child who has returned home.<ref name="represent">{{cite book | first = Leah | last = Creque Harris | title = The Representation of African Dance on the Stage: From the early black musical to Pearl Primus | publisher = Emory University | location = Atlanta, GA | year = 1991}}</ref> During her travels in the villages of Africa, Primus was declared a man so that she could learn the dances only assigned to males. She mastered dances like the war dance Bushasche, and Fanga which were common to African cultural life.

When Primus returned to America, she took the knowledge she gained in Africa and staged pieces for the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre. In 1974, Primus staged ''Fanga'' created in 1949 which was a Liberian dance of welcome that quickly made its way into Primus's iconic repertoire.  She also staged ''The Wedding'' created in 1961.<ref name="Dance History: Pearl Primus"/>  These pieces were based on the African rituals Primus experienced during her travels.  Primus took these traditionally long rituals, dramatized them, made them shorter, and preserved the foundation of the movement .

Primus learned a plethora in Africa, but she was still eager to further her academic knowledge, Primus received her PhD in anthropology from [[New York University]] (NYU) in 1978. In 1979, she and her husband Percival Borde, whom she met during her research in Trinidad, founded the Pearl Primus "Dance Language Institute" in [[New Rochelle]], New York, where they offered classes that blended African-American, Caribbean, and African dance forms with modern dance and ballet techniques. They also established a performance group was called "Earth Theatre".<ref>{{cite book|last=Primus|first=Pearl|title=Earth Theatre|year=1950|publisher=Theater Arts}}</ref>

As an artist/ educator, Primus taught at a number of universities during her career including NYU, [[Hunter College]], the [[State University of New York at Purchase]], the [[College of New Rochelle]], [[Iona College]], the [[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|State University of New York at Buffalo]], [[Howard University]], the [[Five Colleges (Massachusetts)|Five Colleges]] consortium in Massachusetts. She also taught at New Rochelle High School, assisting with cultural presentations.<ref>[http://mamboso.net/primus/summary_2.html "Dance As A Language"], ''Dance: A Tribute to Pearl E. Primus''.</ref> As an anthropologist, she conducted cultural projects in Europe, Africa and America for such organizations as the [[Ford Foundation]], US Office of Education, New York University, Universalist Unitarian Service Committee, Julius Rosenwald Foundation, New York State Office of Education, and the Council for the Arts in Westchester.