Editing Plasma cosmology (section)

== Plasma cosmology and the study of galaxies ==
Hannes Alfvén from the 1960s to 1980s argued that plasma played an important if not dominant role in the universe. He argued that [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic forces]] are far more important than [[gravity]] when acting on interplanetary and interstellar [[charged particle]]s.<ref>H. Alfvén and C.-G. Falthammar, ''Cosmic electrodynamics''(2nd edition, Clarendon press, Oxford, 1963). "The basic reason why electromagnetic phenomena are so important in cosmical physics is that there exist celestial magnetic fields which affect the motion of charged particles in space ... The strength of the interplanetary magnetic field is of the order of 10<sup>−4</sup> gauss (10 [[nanotesla]]s), which gives the [ratio of the magnetic force to the force of gravity] ≈ 10<sup>7</sup>. This illustrates the enormous importance of interplanetary and interstellar magnetic fields, compared with gravitation, as long as the matter is ionized." (p.2-3)</ref> He further hypothesized that they might promote the contraction of [[interstellar cloud]]s and may even constitute the main mechanism for contraction, initiating [[star formation]].<ref name="Alfven1978" >{{cite journal | last1 = Alfvén | first1 = H. | last2 = Carlqvist | first2 = P. | year = 1978 | title = Interstellar clouds and the formation of stars | journal = Astrophysics and Space Science | volume = 55 | issue = 2| pages = 487–509 | bibcode=1978Ap&SS..55..487A|doi = 10.1007/BF00642272 | s2cid = 122687137 | url = https://cds.cern.ch/record/118596 }}</ref> The current standard view is that magnetic fields can hinder collapse, that large-scale [[Birkeland current]]s have not been observed, and that the length scale for charge neutrality is predicted to be far smaller than the relevant cosmological scales.<ref name="Siegel2006" >{{Cite journal |author= Siegel, E. R. |author2= Fry, J. N. |title= Can Electric Charges and Currents Survive in an Inhomogeneous Universe? |date= Sep 2006 |arxiv= astro-ph/0609031 |bibcode= 2006astro.ph..9031S }}</ref>

In the 1980s and 1990s, Alfvén and [[Anthony Peratt]], a plasma physicist at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], outlined a program they called the "plasma universe".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Alfvén | first1 = H. | year = 1986 | title = Model of the Plasma Universe | url = http://www.plasmauniverse.info/downloads/ModelOfTPU_Alfv%C3%A9n.pdf | journal = IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science | volume = PS-14 | issue =  6| pages = 629–638 | doi = 10.1109/tps.1986.4316614 | bibcode = 1986ITPS...14..629A | s2cid = 31617468 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="WI1">A. L. Peratt, ''Plasma Cosmology: Part I, Interpretations of a Visible Universe'',  World & I, vol. 8, pp. 294–301, August 1989. [http://www.plasmauniverse.info/downloads/PerattPlasmaCosmology1W&I.pdf]</ref><ref name="WI2">A. L. Peratt, ''Plasma Cosmology:Part II, The Universe is a Sea of Electrically Charged Particles'', World & I, vol. 9, pp. 306–317, September 1989 .[http://www.plasmauniverse.info/downloads/PerattPlasmaCosmology2W&I.pdf]</ref> In plasma universe proposals, various plasma physics phenomena were associated with astrophysical observations and were used to explain contemporary mysteries and problems outstanding in astrophysics in the 1980s and 1990s. In various venues, Peratt profiled what he characterized as an alternative viewpoint to the mainstream models applied in astrophysics and cosmology.<ref name=WI1 /><ref name=WI2 /><ref name=ST>{{Cite web|url=http://www.plasmauniverse.info/downloads/CosmologyPeratt.pdf|title=A.L. Peratt, ''Plasma Cosmology,'' Sky & Tel. Feb. 1992}}</ref><ref name=Peratt />

For example, Peratt proposed that the mainstream approach to galactic dynamics which relied on gravitational modeling of stars and gas in galaxies with the addition of dark matter was overlooking a possibly major contribution from plasma physics. He mentions laboratory experiments of [[Winston H. Bostick]] in the 1950s that created plasma discharges that looked like galaxies.<ref name="Peratt1986b">{{cite journal |author=A. Peratt |title=Evolution of the plasma universe. I – Double radio galaxies, quasars, and extragalactic jets |journal=IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science |issn=0093-3813 |volume=PS-14 |issue=6 |pages=639–660 |date=1986 |url=http://public.lanl.gov/alp/plasma/downloadsCosmo/Peratt86TPS-I.pdf |bibcode = 1986ITPS...14..639P |doi = 10.1109/TPS.1986.4316615 |s2cid=30767626 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bostick | first1 = W. H. | year = 1986 | title = What laboratory-produced plasma structures can contribute to the understanding of cosmic structures both large and small | journal = IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science | volume = PS-14 | issue = 6| pages = 703–717 | bibcode=1986ITPS...14..703B|doi = 10.1109/TPS.1986.4316621 | s2cid = 25575722 }}</ref> Perrat conducted computer simulations of colliding plasma clouds that he reported also mimicked the shape of galaxies.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=AL Peratt |author2=J Green |author3=D Nielson |title=Evolution of Colliding Plasmas |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=44 |issue=26 |date=20 June 1980 |pages=1767–1770|bibcode = 1980PhRvL..44.1767P |doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.44.1767 }}</ref> Peratt proposed that galaxies formed due to plasma filaments joining in a [[z-pinch]], the filaments starting 300,000 light years apart and carrying [[Birkeland current]]s of 10<sup>18</sup> amperes.<ref name="Lerner" /><ref name="Peratt1983">{{cite journal |author1=AL Peratt |author2=J Green |title=On the Evolution of Interacting, Magnetized, Galactic Plasmas |journal=Astrophysics and Space Science |volume=91 |issue=1 |date=1983 |pages=19–33|bibcode = 1983Ap&SS..91...19P |doi = 10.1007/BF00650210 |s2cid=121524786 }}</ref> Peratt also reported simulations he did showing emerging jets of material from the central buffer region that he compared to [[quasars]] and [[active galactic nucleus|active galactic nuclei]] occurring without [[supermassive black hole]]s. Peratt proposed a sequence for [[galaxy evolution]]: "the transition of double [[radio galaxy|radio galaxies]] to [[quasar|radioquasars]] to radioquiet QSO's to peculiar and [[Seyfert galaxy|Seyfert galaxies]], finally ending in [[spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]]".<ref name="Peratt1986">{{cite journal |author=A. Peratt 
|title=Evolution of the Plasma Universe: II. The Formation of Systems of Galaxies |journal=IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science |issn=0093-3813 |volume=PS-14 |issue=6 |pages=763–778 |date=1986 |url=http://public.lanl.gov/alp/plasma/downloadsCosmo/Peratt86TPS-II.pdf|bibcode = 1986ITPS...14..763P |doi = 10.1109/TPS.1986.4316625 |s2cid=25091690 }}</ref> He also reported that flat [[galaxy rotation curves]] were simulated without [[dark matter]].<ref name= "Lerner">{{cite book
|author=E. J. Lerner
|title=The Big Bang Never Happened
|publisher=Random House
|location=New York and Toronto
|date=1991
|isbn=978-0-8129-1853-3
|url=https://archive.org/details/bigbangneverhapp00lern
}}</ref> At the same time [[Eric Lerner]], an independent plasma researcher and supporter of Peratt's ideas, proposed a plasma model for quasars based on a [[dense plasma focus]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.J. Lerner |title=Magnetic Self‑Compression in Laboratory Plasma, Quasars and Radio Galaxies |journal=Laser and Particle Beams |volume=4 part 2 |issue=2 |date=1986 |pages=193‑222 |bibcode = 1986LPB.....4..193L |doi = 10.1017/S0263034600001750 |doi-access=free }}</ref>