Editing Pope Nicholas I (section)

==Papacy==
[[File:Bulle Nicolas I 6979.jpg|thumb|Reproduction of a [[papal bull|bull]] of Nicholas I]]
To a spiritually exhausted and politically uncertain Western Europe beset by Muslim and Norse incursions, Pope Nicholas appeared as a conscientious representative of [[Roman primacy]] in the Church. He was filled with a high conception of his mission for the vindication of Christian morality and the defence of God's law.<ref name=Kirsch/> His co-operation with Emperor Louis II and Byzantine forces temporarily stemmed the [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Muslim advance in southern Italy]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Williston Walker|title=History of the Christian Church|date=30 Jun 2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781476794679|page=249}}</ref> He also strengthened the [[Ostia Antica|Ostian]] fortifications against any future Muslim raids.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Noelle Watson|author3=Paul Schellinger|title=Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=5 Nov 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134259588|page=503}}</ref>

===Bishops===
Archbishop John of [[Ravenna]] oppressed the inhabitants of the [[Papal States]], treated his suffragan bishops with violence, made unjust demands upon them for money, and illegally imprisoned priests. He also forged documents to support his claims against the Roman See and maltreated the papal legates. As the warnings of the pope were without result, and the archbishop ignored a thrice-repeated summons to appear before the papal tribunal, he was excommunicated. Having first visited the Emperor Louis at [[Pavia]], the archbishop repaired with two imperial delegates to Rome, where Nicholas cited him before the Roman synod assembled in the autumn of 860. Upon this John fled from Rome.<ref name=Kirsch/>

Going in person to Ravenna, the pope then investigated and equitably regulated everything. Again appealing to the emperor, the archbishop was recommended by him to submit to the pope, which he did at the Roman Synod of November 861. Later on, however, he entered into a pact with the excommunicated [[Archbishop of Trier|archbishops of Trier]] and [[Archbishop of Cologne|Cologne]], was himself again excommunicated, and once more forced to make his submission to the pope. Another conflict arose between Nicholas and Archbishop [[Hincmar of Reims]]: this concerned the prerogatives of the papacy. [[Bishop Rothad of Soissons]] had appealed to the pope against the decision of the Synod of Soissons of 861, which had deposed him. Hincmar opposed the appeal to the pope, but eventually had to acknowledge the right of the papacy to take cognizance of important legal causes (''causae majores'') and pass independent judgment upon them. A further dispute broke out between Hincmar and the pope as to the elevation of the cleric Wulfad to the [[Archbishop of Bourges|archiepiscopal See of Bourges]], but here again, Hincmar finally submitted to the decrees of the Apostolic See, and the Frankish synods passed corresponding ordinances.

===Marriage laws===
Nicholas showed the same zeal in other efforts to maintain ecclesiastical discipline, especially as to the marriage laws. Ingiltrud, wife of Count Boso, had left her husband for a paramour; Nicholas commanded the bishops in the dominions of [[Charles the Bald]] to [[excommunicate]] her unless she returned to her husband. As she paid no attention to the summons to appear before the [[Synod of Milan]] in 860, she was put under the ban.
[[File:Lothaire 2 sceaux 17051.jpg|thumb|Seal of Lothair II]]
The pope was also involved in a desperate struggle with the bishops of Lotharingia over the inviolability of marriage. King [[Lothair II]], not having any children by his wife, [[Teutberga]], had abandoned her to marry his mistress, [[Waldrada of Lotharingia|Waldrada]]. At the Synod of Aachen on 28 April 862, the bishops of Lotharingia approved this union, contrary to ecclesiastical law. At the [[Council of Metz 863|Council of Metz]], June 863, the papal legates, bribed by the king, assented to the Aachen decision, and condemned the absent Teutberga, who took refuge in the court of Lothair's uncle, [[Charles the Bald]], and appealed to the Pope. Upon this the pope brought the matter before his own tribunal. The two archbishops, [[Gunther (archbishop of Cologne)|Günther of Cologne]] and [[Theotgaud|Thietgaud of Trier]], both rumoured to be relatives of Waldrada, had come to Rome as delegates, and were summoned before the Lateran Synod of October 863, when the pope condemned and deposed them as well as John of Ravenna and Hagano of Bergamo. Emperor Louis II took up the cause of the deposed bishops, while King Lothair advanced upon Rome with an army and laid siege to the city. The pope took refuge for two days in St. Peter's. Subsequently, [[Engelberga]] arranged a reconciliation with the pope,<ref name="Bougard">Bougard, François (1993). [http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/imperatrice-engelberga_(Dizionario-Biografico) "ENGELBERGA (Enghelberga, Angelberga), imperatrice"] ‘’Treccani’’.</ref> the emperor withdrew from Rome and commanded the former archbishops of Trier and Cologne to return to their homes. Nicholas never ceased his efforts to bring about a reconciliation between Lothair and his wife.

Another matrimonial case in which Nicholas interposed was that of [[Judith of Flanders|Judith]], daughter of Charles the Bald, who had married Count [[Baldwin I of Flanders]] without her father's consent. Frankish bishops had excommunicated Judith, and Hincmar of Reims had taken sides against her, but Nicholas urged leniency in order to protect freedom of marriage.

===Relations with the Eastern Church===
In the East, Nicholas was seen as trying to extend his papal power beyond what was canonical authority by asserting a "rulership" over the Church instead of the position of "highest honor among equals" accorded to the pope of Rome by the East. He contended that [[Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople]] was deposed in 858 and [[Photius I]] raised to the patriarchal see in violation of [[ecclesiastical law]].<ref name=O'Malley/> Nicholas sent two bishops as papal legates to the [[Council of Constantinople (861)|Council of Constantinople]] in 861, but they failed to follow papal instructions. In a letter of 8 May 862 addressed to the patriarchs of the East, Nicholas called upon them and all their bishops to refuse recognition to Photius, and at a Roman synod held in April 863, he excommunicated Photius.
[[File:The interrogation of Patriarch Photios.jpg|thumb|13th-century depiction of the interrogation of Photius I]]
According to the Church of Constantinople, Photius was elected lawfully and canonically by the will of the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael III]] in 858. This decision was affirmed later in 879 in a [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)|synod of Greek bishops]] regarded as ecumenical by some in the Orthodox Church. At this synod, Ignatius’ elevation to the patriarchate was declared to be uncanonical and Photius was acclaimed as properly elected as the new patriarch, a decision which ran counter to [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)|a previous council held at Constantinople]] –  regarded as ecumenical by the Catholic Church – in which Photius had been deposed and Ignatius reinstated. The Eastern Church resented Nicholas' pressing of the doctrine of papal primacy. This led to conflict between Constantinople and Rome over doctrinal issues such as the addition of the [[Filioque clause]] to the [[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]] and territorial claims due to the Church of Constantinople's seizure of territory from the Roman Patriarchate in southern Italy, Sicily and Illyricum during the [[Iconoclast controversy]]. A synod at Constantinople, headed by Photios,  in 867 excommunicated Nicholas{{sfn|Gallagher|2019|p=90}} and rejected his claims of primacy, his efforts to convert [[Bulgaria]] to the obedience of the Roman Church, and the addition of the Filioque clause in parts of the Latin Church. The news of excommunication did not arrive in Rome until after Nicholas' death.{{sfn|Gallagher|2019|p=90}}

For a variety of reasons, Prince [[Boris I of Bulgaria]] became interested in converting to Christianity and undertook to do that at the hands of western clergymen to be supplied by King [[Louis the German]] of [[East Francia]] in 863. Late in the same year, the Byzantine Empire invaded [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] as it suffered famine and natural disasters. Boris was forced to sue for peace. Because the majority of his people were still opposed to Christianity, he was secretly baptized according to the Byzantine rite. The Byzantine Emperor who became his godfather conceded territory in [[Thrace]] to him.

Unhappy with Byzantine influence and desiring an [[autocephalous]] status which Photius was unwilling to grant, Boris sent an embassy to Nicholas with 106 questions on the teaching and discipline of the Church in August 866. Nicholas answered these inquiries in his "''Responsa Nicolai ad consulta Bulgarorum''" ([[Giovanni Domenico Mansi]], "Coll. Conc.", XV, 401 sqq.) and sent missionaries under the papal legate bishop Formosus (later [[Pope Formosus]]). Also in 866, Nicholas sent a letter to the Bulgarians ordering the [[Book burning|burning of any books]] captured from the Muslims because they were deemed harmful and blasphemous.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Benjamin Z. Kedar|title=Crusade and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslims|date=14 Jul 2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400855612|page=32}}</ref> When [[Pope Adrian II]] rejected Boris's request that either [[Formosus]] or [[Marinus I|Marinus]] be made [[archbishop of Bulgaria]], Boris began to look again towards Constantinople. In 870 a council of Constantinople granted the autocephalous status and Greek priests were sent as missionaries; they were soon replaced by Bulgarians.

===Pants controversy===
In 866, the Bulgar [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Kahn St Boris the Baptiser]] wrote to Pope Nicholas asking a wide range of questions, one of which being whether or not it was sinful for Christians to wear [[trousers|pants]]. In response, Nicholas wrote, "For whether you or your women wear or do not wear pants neither impedes your salvation nor leads to any increase of your virtue." The Pope then proceeded with a discussion on the virtue of wearing the "spiritual pants" of a temperate life while restraining disordered passions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Murphy |first=Conrad |date= 23 December 2024|title=St. Nicholas I And The Question Of Trousers |url=https://catholic-link.org/saint-nicolas-trousers-catholic-history-pope/ |website=Catholic Link |location= |publisher=Catholic-Link.org |access-date=2025-01-20 |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250115090607/https://catholic-link.org/saint-nicolas-trousers-catholic-history-pope/ |archive-date=2025-01-15}}</ref>